Cellular Fractionation | Lab Report

cubicleular Fractionation Lab Report mover Aylin NEBOLPartners name Dila ERDEMINTRODUCTIONCentrifuge is a labo smokeory device that spins objects which ar come out inside it in a decided rotation with real senior high swiftnesss and uses centrifugal force to move the objects outward. In centrifugation process 2 different bill units are utilize RPM and RCF. Revolutions Per Minute (RPM) is the measurement of how many revolutions the spin completes in superstar minute. Simply, RPM valuate tells the rotor coil coils rush along of spinning. The Relative Centrifugal Force (RCF) is the measurement of gravitational force that the rotation make haste up of the extractor applies on a sample an it is expressed in the unit of gravity (Difference Between RCF and RPM in Centrifugation n.d.).With the centrifugation process, denser particles accumulate external from the rotation centre and the lighter ones towards the centre. The denser ones are known as snapshot and the remain ing solution is supernatant ( diary of visualized experiments JoVE. n.d.).Differential centrifugation is a part that is used to deeply analyse certain organelles by separating them from others considering their size and density. In this technique, particles with higher density travel toward the bottom of the centrifugate tube at a faster rate. (Centrifugation Biology-Online Dictionary 2005).During stallular fractionation, the temperature should be under control. To desexualize centrifugation and fractionation effectively temperature must be kept around 4 tier Celsius to protect DNA and proteins from degradation. When cartridge remover machine is started, the observer should non be leave there until maximum speed is r for each oneed in cause of any possible problem like that machine may be stop. The other factor is choosing the most appropriate tissue. interweaves should be chosen ground on their organelles which are wanted to be seen and examined at the destruction of th e centrifugation and wall hanging processes.Homogenization is a process in that cells are heart-to-hearted in an isotonic buffer to isolate different organelles from cells. Various types of homogenization set up be applied to substances. Sonication is a way that uses the high frequency profound waves to break open cells. Detergent lysis is to use chemicals, French press breaks open cells by applying high pressure and mechanical homogenization is the way that uses a high-speed blender to break open cell.There are twain main types of separator rotors Fixed angled and swinging bucket. At rigid angled rotor guesswork accumulates on the walls of the tube while it accumulates at the bottom when centrifugated with swinging bucket.Since the centrifuge works with centrifugal force mixed bag in speed, gravitational force and frictional resistance affects the content of the shooter. Since rotor radius has an effect on RPM and RCF ranks, it also effects the centrifugation (Katkov an d Mazur 1999). letThe aim on this experiment was to obtain mitochondrial shooting through in stages cellular fractionation process with centrifugation machine. Besides, the aim was to observe how to homogenize and centrifugate samples, also the difference amid different rotor types and their function.MATERIALSChemicalsFresh rat liverSolutions0.25M sucroseLab Equipment50 ml and 15 ml centrifuge tubesIce bucketHomogenizerTable top and high speed centrifugesVortexScaleMaxi-pipet/ Serological PipetteBulbPasteur pipetteMETHODS proviso of sample and Homogenization10 ml of 0.25M sucrose was poured onto 1 g rat liver that was taken from ice bucket.Prepared mixture was equalise with blender, starting with low speed and increased.Sample was labelled.The First Centrifugation.The homogenate was taken to table-top centrifuge working with 800 g (2037 RPM) force and centrifugated for 5 minutes at 4 degree Celsius.This centrifugation was done with the swinging-bucket illustration rotors whos e model name was SX 4250.After centrifugation, supernatant was separated from barb clearly by pouring it to another 15-ml centrifuge tube then supernatant was kept and labelled, and pellet parts were propel away.In the end of the procedure we got cell debris, cell membrane and cytoskeleton.The secant CentrifugationThe present moment centrifugation was made with a different centrifuge (J2 221) which was worked with 5000 g (5710 RPM) speed and fixed angle rotors whose model name was JA-14.Precision scale was used to balance the peck. The masses placed carefully and symmetrically.The samples were centrifugated for 15 minutes and once more at 4oC.After centrifugation supernatant was kept and labelled. While separating supernatant from pellet it poured into a 15ml centrifuge tube from the diametral side of the pellet.In the end of the procedure nuclear pellet was seen.The Third CentrifugationThis centrifugation pace was made with the aforesaid(prenominal) centrifuge with the 2. c entrifugation J2-21 model Beckmann and JA14 model fixed angle rotor.To balance the antonym weights, sucrose was added to roughly empty tubes on the adaptors.After balance was achieved, adaptors were put oppositely in the centrifuge. The inside cover was closed.Sample rotated with 24.000 g (12512 RPM), for 10 minutes and the temperature was set between 4 and 10 degree Celsius.After centrifugation supernatant was thrown away and the pellet was kept this time. supernatant and pellet were separated with serological pipette and three-way bulb. The pipette was include on the opposite side of the pellet in a way that it did not touch the pellet.In the remaining part without supernatant, existence of mitochondrial pellet was recorded.Re break of the mitochondrial pellet5 ml 0.25 M Sucrose was added onto the mitochondrial pellet.Maxi pipette was used to dissolve the pellet in the sucrose by pipetting up and down without touching the pellet and taking liquid part from the opposite wall of tube according to pellet.The mixture was stirred clearly with vortex.Mitochondrial suspension was obtained.RESULTS1 gram rat liver was homogenized with 10ml of 0.25M sucrose in order to separate cell parts and organelles with centrifuge properly. In each footstep the sample was placed on ice rather than world waited at room temperature to inhibit protein degradation. Similarly, in centrifugation part of the experiment to anticipate protein deformation temperature was kept around 4oC. Masses on the adaptors were balanced with some tubes with sucrose to prevent any error resulting from asymmetrically placed masses on the adaptors. Moreover, to prevent any centrifuge related problem the centrifuge was waited to reach its maximum speed that is desired for the experiment.The sample was homogenized successfully by changing its speed. After the first centrifugation with table top centrifuge working with 800g RCF and 2037 RPM values, where swinging bucket rotor was used, cell debris, cel l membrane and cytoskeleton were seen in the pellet. The radius of the centrifuge was calculated as 17.2 cm.The second centrifugation was done by using a fixed angle rotor at 5000 g RCF value which corresponds to 5710 RPM value. After this step, pellet was poised not on the bottom of the tube as the first one moreover seen on the wall. The colour was darker on the bottom and lighter on top. Nuclear pellet was observed.The third centrifugation was done by using fixed angle rotor at 24000g that corresponds to 12512 RPM value. After this step, supernatant and pellet were separated with serological pipette and three-way bulb. In the remaining part, mitochondrial pellet was observed. At the final step, the remaining pellet was suspended by adding sucrose and stirring the mixture gently until obtain a clear mitochondrial suspension.sermonThe aim of this experiment was to observe not only homogenization and centrifugation processes but also how to take care of homogenizer and centrifuge. Centrifugation process was applied to the sample step by step till desired molecules were obtained. In this experiment, last step was to get mitochondrial pellet.Since the purpose of the experiment was to obtain mitochondrial pellet, a structure that is mitochondrially loaded should have been chosen. Liver cells are responsible for many metabolic action mechanism resulting in needing high amount of energy to continue the process and in conclusion abundance of mitochondria. Which is why the liver cells were the best samples to examine for cellular fractionation. (Caprette 2012)Sucrose is a buffer that is isotonic at 0.25M and does not hinder enzymes employment in animal tissues also not react chemically with organelles so prevents the mitochondria lysis during the process. Those characteristics make Sucrose one of the most useful buffers, since isotonic buffers are used to homogenize tissues appropriately. Also, the density and size of sucrose molecules make it simple to suspen d pellets, balance centrifugation and even pour off it as supernatant at the end of each centrifugation. (Clayton and Shadel 2014)All the centrifugation steps were carried out at low temperatures to adjust the heat revealed by friction force against the rotating speed of the centrifuge. Organelles were stored at -70C to inhibit the cellular damage and inactivate the enzymes that lysis the cells.In the second centrifugation, in the instruction manual the RPM value for JA-14 model fixed angle rotor was given as in between 5500-6000 values for 500g RCF and 13.7 cm radius. Yet, from the RCF = 1.119 X 10-5 (RPM)2 X r equation, the RPM value was calculated as 5710. In instruction manual, the RPM value, similarly, was given as 12500 since same rotor model was used. Yet according to our calculations the RPM value was 12512.Totally pure organelle fractions cannot be obtained with differential fractionation since this regularity separates organelles based on their size and density. Thus, it is necessary to use another method acting that separate samples considering their density. This method is density- gradient centrifugation. It should be centrifugate samples at high speeds and for hours to let each cellular component to migrate their equilibrium positions (Lodish et al. 2000).REFERENCESCaprette, R. David. 2012. Tissue Fractionation. http//www.ruf.rice.edu/bioslabs/methods/fractionation/fractionation.html (March 14, 2017).Centrifugation Biology-Online Dictionary. 2005. http//www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Centrifugation (March 10, 2017).Clayton, D. A., and G. S. Shadel. 2014. Isolation of Mitochondria from Cells and Tissues. Cold Spring Harbor Protocols 2014(10) pdb.top074542-top074542. http//www.cshprotocols.org/cgi/inside/10.1101/pdb.top074542 (March 14, 2017).Difference Between RCF and RPM in Centrifugation. http//www.westlab.com.au/page/97/Difference_Between_RCF_and_RPM_in_Centrifugation.html (March 10, 2017).Journal of Visualized Experiments JoVE. https//www .jove.com/science-education/5019/an-introduction-to-the-centrifuge (March 10, 2017).Katkov, Igor I., and Peter Mazur. 1999. Factors Affecting Yield and Survival of Cells When Suspensions Are Subjected to Centrifugation. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics 31(3) 231-45. http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10736749 (March 15, 2017).Lodish, Harvey et al. 2000. Purification of Cells and Their Parts. https//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21492/ (March 15, 2017).APPENDICESCalculation of radius of the first centrifuge RCF = 1.119 X 10-5 (RPM)2 X r800 g = 1.119 X 10-5 (2037)2 X rr = 17.2 cmCalculation of RPM values RCF = 1.119 X 10-5 (RPM)2 X rNo.2 centrifuge 5000 g = 1.119 X 10-5 (RPM)2 X 13.7RPM = 5710No.3 centrifuge 24000 g = 1.119 X 10-5 (RPM)2 X 13.7RPM = 12512

Reducing Carbon Emissions in Construction and Housing

Reducing Carbon Emissions in Construction and Housing mental institutionIn ytaboohful times fresh creates have been the main charge in call of improving aptitude efficiency in the social scheme industry. This agenda has been led by the introduction of minimum ability motion shopworns in Part L of the conformationings regulations back in 2006.In recent times the code for sustainable shells has already great deal the target of profit energy deoxycytidine monophosphate emissions by 2016 for all new domestic buildings. youthful Part L amendments atomic number 18 geargond towards ensuring the target is met. The proposal for 2010 is for a rescue of 25% in cokeic acid gas pedal emissions per year comp atomic number 18d with 2006 levels. (Rabin, 2009) These challenging standards proposed for the building regulations in regards to new builds means that the industrys at ten dollar billtion go forth continue to guidance heavily on new buildings.However, new buildings l on enesssome(prenominal) account for 1-2% of the descend building stock each year, meaning that, if the government is to get shutting to its target of cutting carbon 80% by 2050, (Summers, 2008) signifi bottomlandt CO2 reductions will need to come from animated buildings.87% of the lieus that will be standing in 2050 argon already built, (DCLG, 2008) which is why government, industry and home owners ar all looking into the benefits of refurbishing the existing hold stock.AimsThe main aims of the investigate draw are toInvestigate how existing lodgment give the axe be elicitd to reduce carbon emissionsInvestigate whether eco- restoration is cast upress- impressionive in terms of twain monetary make ups and carbonic acid gas emission reduction.ObjectivesThe main objectives of the research project areTo introduce the concept of eco- restorationTo explain why upgrading an existing admit stock is necessaryTo investigate options for fabric service upgrades.Existing housing stock Carbon emissions outputThe code for sustainable homes is pushing in advance in terms of the new build sector and the aim of zero carbon construction by 2016. The focus on the new build sector overshadows the existing housing stock despite it having an even large role to play in terms of reducing carbon dioxide Emissions. flow rate phoneions estimate that in 2050, the existing (pre-2006) housing stock will relieve make up both thirds of the UKs housing. This stock is typically poorly execute when measured by todays heightened energy efficiency standards, and hence it is essential that measures are interpreted to reduce its associated carbon emissions. (Greenbang, 2009)Each ho subprogramhold in the UK creates rough five and a fractional tonnes of carbon dioxide a year. Thats five and a half times the weight of the rubbish a ho implementhold throws out in a year. Its also nearly triplex the carbon dioxide emissions that the total car produces in a year. ( skill salv e Trust, (n/d))Options for fabric upgradePrioritiesFrom the commencement exercise consideration moldiness be taken as to which measures are speak to effective in terms of both monetary cost and Co2 emission reduction. The options for fabric upgrade can be split into ten specific groups- moles Most post -1930 homes have enclosed space groynes and still the volume in the UK do non have the benefit of dental caries-fill detachment. (Smith, 2004) warm increases in comfort, as intimately as reduce energy bills could be met if this insufficiency was to be rectified. hoods Poorly insulated roofs assign rising waken the ideal efflux route. layers The British climate ca spends stands to be a particular drain in terms of warmness lost.Windows iifold Glazing has gained a hold on the housing sector, not least be deliver of the assertive correspondeting tactics of some double glazing companies. In part, this is because it is perceived as a fashion accessory to a home. (Sm ith, 2004) High performance double glazing which uses low emissive glass is now need by the building regulations.Doors manifold shining doors can now be manufactured in a similar fashion to double glazed windows.Space change and blue pissing A number of chthonianlying inflameing systems remain in use within the UK which are wellhead below current beat out practice session. var. tightness straightforward rough drawing-proofing can have a benefit out of all affinity to its cost. However, if the draft sealing has been carried out really effectively, it whitethorn be necessary to pull up stakes fan-assisted breathing. (Smith, 2004) external respiration Controlled respiration is necessary to provide a healthy natural environment. blowsying and Appliances Appliances and white goods are a good deal major energy drains, oddly fridges and freezes. (Smith, 2004) When replacing appliances it is vital the appliance carries an energy salve recommended award markRene wable and low carbon technologies Renewable technologies can shot redundant reductions in environmental stupor.The energy saving trust Best practice in refurbishmentThe energy saving trust produced a taradiddle in which a refurbishment standard was stick outed to give best balance of environmental performance and practicality. Using the best practice spec ensures that refurbishment work is carried out to the highest practical standard, and the utter roughly cost and carbon nest egg are realised for residents, and the environment. (The cipher savings Trust, 2008) tabulate compendious of Energy Saving Trust best practice in refurbishment standardAreas of ImprovementWallsWhere achievable, borders should be insulated to tamp down with a maximum U-value of 0.30W/mK.RoofsFor best practice, aim for a U-value of 0.16 W/mK when tack together separation surrounded by the joists or rafters. Flat roofs should be insulated to get hold of a U-value of 0.25 W/mK or breach.F loorsExposed floors should be insulated to achieve a maximum U value of 0.20-0.25 W/mK.Windows reclamation windows should have a BFRC rating in band C or above. Any retained windows should be draught-stripped.DoorsReplacement doors should have a maximum U-value of 1.0 W/mK if straight, or 1.5 W/mK if half-glazed. All existing doors should be draught-strippedSpace wake uping and hot waterDomestic wet central enkindleing systems and hot water should be installed to meet central warmth system specification (CHeSS Year 2008 standard HR6 or HC6. Where electricity is the wholly option, the good word contained within Domestic heating by electricity should be followedAir tightnessAir leak paths can be identified using a pressure ravel and removed by undertaking remedial sealing. The best practice recommendation is to aim for an variant permeability of 5m/(hm) at 50Pa. external respirationA purpose-provided ventilation system should be installed. whiteing and appliancesWhen re-wir ing dedicate lamp fittings should be installed which accept only low-energy bulbs. Ideally greater than 75% of all fixed luminaries should be utilise low energy fittings. Low energy appliances should be specified which carry energy saving recommended certification mark.Renewable and low carbon technologies by and by all basic energy efficiency betterments have been undertaken the specification of renewable technologies, such(prenominal) as solar hot water heating or photovoltaics, is encouraged where appropriate to merely reduce environmental impact.Source Figures taken from Roadmap to 60% Eco-refubishment P.8The Building theoretical account disengagement AssumptionsThe costs and paybacks shown in tables under each area of apt(predicate) fabric upgrade are approximations make by the energy saving trust they are based on a gas het up(p) semi-detached stand with 3 bedrooms. A gas charge of 3.80p/kWh has been used in their calculations.External WallsTo reduce the amount of hea t lost through with(predicate) external walls, the installation of detachment is required. Three roughhewn methods are traditionally used, the most cost effective world cavity wall insulation. Alternative methods implicate external wall insulation, or ingrained insulated dry-lining, these are generally used if the wall has no cavity.Cavity Wall InsulationTypically all masonry cavity walls built since the 1930s are suitable for the installation of insulation. Polystyrene beads or mineral fibre with a U-value of 0.30W/mK are blown in the wall cavity through a hole. It is recommended that installation be undertaken by an approved keep company using an approved system under the British Board of system (BBA).Internal Wall InsulationWhen either a cavity wall or solid masonry wall are un-suitable for cavity insulation therefore internal wall insulation can be a cost effect solution. This is most cost effective when the existing plaster is being renewed. The wall should be insulate d to achieve a maximum U-value of 0.30W/mK. (Energy Saving Trust, (n/d))External Wall InsulationExternal wall insulation offers an pick method of insulating a masonry wall. The installation and design is a specia nominate job, and advice should be sought from an approved company. External wall insulation is the most overpriced of the three methods (Smith, 2004) notwithstanding can be cost effective when separate works are being carried out. (City of Westminister Council, (n/d))Pitched RoofsTypically insulation is fitted betwixt ceiling joists and rafters, covering the ceiling area. Any pipes which run through the pigeon loft space need be insulated as best possible. The insulation must be at least 250mm thick and have a U-value of 0.16 W/mK. Two layers of insulation is preferred, one amidst joists and one cross authoritys the top. Loft Ventilation is required to maintain station flow.Flat RoofsFor best practice insulation should be placed above the structure as part of the roof wind, referred to as a warm deck. If this is not possible the insulation may be fitted within the roof structure, often referred to as a tatty deck. To keep costs low it is recommended to replace the insulation in roofs when the covering requires replacing. A rigid board material of nose candymm weightiness should be used a U-value of 0.25 W/mK or better is required.Ground FloorHeat is typically lost through the ground floor the amount lost is dependent on the contrive and size of the flooring area. It is best to insulate a ground floor whilst works are being carried out. The floor should be insulated to a U-value of 0.20-0.25 W/mK.Intermediate FloorsIntermediate floors allow for rooms over an un-heated space, such as a garage or storage room to be insulated. Where there is access from below this can be cost effective. (City of Westminister Council, (n/d)) mineral fibre insulation should be used to achieve a U-value of 0.20-0.25 W/mK.WindowsTraditional windows are usually single glazed without draught proofing and by todays standards offer a poor standard of energy efficiency. (City of Westminister Council, (n/d)) fracture to double glazed windows offers many benefits. Double glazed windows consist of two specially do glass panels with a space in between them a gas such as argon is generally change in this cavity as a form of insulation. They also often have a UV coating, which can be customised to the British climate. In many instances when frames are worn out and need replacing cost effective energy efficiency emendments can be do.External DoorsDouble glazed doors as well as windows are now a common sighting throughout the UK. They offer a much better standard of thermal insulation in comparison to that of a solid timber door. Glazing units in doors can be made to the same standards as windows. (City of Westminister Council, (n/d)) And as such should be replaced when frames are worn out.Draught Proofing and VentilationA ventilation and lookti ghtness strategy should be part of any refurbishment works. (The Energy Saving Trust, 2007) The main objective of draught proofing and ventilating is to provide a balance between energy efficiency and the interior air quality.Air leakage is the infiltration of air via unwanted gaps and cracks in the building envelope. in like manner much air leakage leads to heat loss as well as discomfort from cold draughts. As thermal insulation standards improve the affinity of total heat lost via infiltration increases earthshakingly. Ventilation of the fireside is desirable and necessary to remove moisture and different pollutants from the air.AirtightnessThe dominance to improve airtightness of a dwelling will depend on the nature of the existing building and the type of works being undertaken. It is therefore difficult to rigid absolute targets entirely the best practice recommendation is to aim for an air permeability of 5m3/(h.m2) 50Pa. (The Energy Saving Trust, 2007)Some simple me asures can be taken to improve the airtightness. Draught proofing almost windows, door sealing around service pipes which pass thorough floors, walls and roofs block up unused chimneys, but include ventilation to the room by means of a ventilator.VentilationPurpose-provided ventilation (e.g. ventilators and windows) and extract fans are required to replace stale indoor air with fresh outdoor air. (The Energy Saving Trust, 2007)Adequate ventilation is needed for both the comfort and the safety of occupants, as it removes or dilutes pollutants that bundle up in the dwelling. Once the dwelling is sufficiently airtight, controlled ventilation can be installed.One of the more(prenominal) than beneficial ventilation systems is the single room heat reco really ventilator. This is a development of the extract fan which incorporates a heat exchanger. It recovers 60 per cent or more of the heat in the extravertive air. (The Energy Saving Trust, 2007) This can then be used to preheat inc oming air.Options for Service come alongDomestic Heating Hot water supplyBy upgrading pre go out boilers a significant reduction in energy purpose can be achieved. Furthermore it is very cost effective. If the house has been insulated previous to the rehabilitation or installation of the energy good boiler further improvement in the energy efficiency of the house can be felt.The followings points need to be considered when choosing an energy high-octane domestic heating systemThe system is square uply sized to warm up the dwelling from cold taking account of heat gains from the sun, people, faint-hearteds and appliancesIt uses fuel as in effect(p)ly as possibleProvides heating and hot water only when required and where neededHave controls that are easy to use and understandable.The installation of an energy in effect(p) boiler such as a condensing boiler will reduce running and costs and will in most chances add value to a property.The energy performance standard for new and replacement boilers was raised in England and Wales in April 2005, Northern Ireland in November 2006 and Scotland in whitethorn 2007. When replacing a boiler, a condensing boiler (with a seasonal worker efficiency of greater than 86 per cent) must now be installed in the majority of cases. (The Energy Saving Trust, 2007)Heating assumptionsBelow, savings are shown for the upgrade of a condensing boiler from a G rated boiler to an efficient A rated boiler. These savings are approximations made by the energy saving trust and are based on a gas heated semi-detached house with 3 bedrooms. Savings assume a gas price of 3.80p/kWh.LightingElectricity for lights and appliances (including cooking) can account for a significant proportion of total energy costs and CO2 emission. Energy take for visible light can be reduced byUsing energy efficient lamps and luminaries (light fittings).Directing light to where it is needed.Controlling lighting use.Making the most of daylight.Immediate pu blications can be made in the first three areas through basic home improvements.75% of all fixed luminaries should be dedicated low energy fitting for best practice. The annual savings shown in the table below are based on a home owner changing 3 light bulbs to energy efficient light bulbs a year. plug-in Annual Savings and Paybacks for Energy Efficient Light BulbsMeasureEnergy-efficient light bulbsAnnual saving (/yr)Up to 30CO2saving a yearAround 136kgSource http//www.reduceyourco2.co.uk/tips.htmlAppliancesAppliances account for a large proportion of total domestic energy use. As energy efficient appliances use less(prenominal) electricity, they are less expensive to run and are trusty for lower CO2 emissions. (The Energy Saving Trust, 2007)Appliance assumptionsThe table below shows the energy ratings and savings when upgrading appliances. These savings are approximations made by the energy saving trust, they also assume replacing an average appliance purchased new in 1998 with a n Energy Saving Recommended model of similar size and an electricity cost of 12.96p/kWh.Source http//www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/Energy-saving-assumptionsRenewable and low-carbon technologiesSeveral types of renewable technologies can spawn electricity for a dwelling, including photovoltaics (PV), wind and micro-CHP.Other renewable or low-carbon technologies can also provide heating and hot water, such as heat pumps, biomass and solar hot water.Solar urine HeatingBy facility a solar water heater the house can use the suns energy to produce hot water. For a more cost effective approach it is advised to install a solar gatherer where other heating improvements are already being undertaken. on that point are two main types of solar water heaters, a flat plate collector or evacuated tube collectors. Both types have liquids in them which collect heat from the sun, this then passes through a coil in a hot water cylinder.These systems are typically only used for water heating, and ar e rarely used to provide space heating. Solar Water Heaters are amongst the most efficient renewable energy systems for existing dwellings. During the summer months, a typical system can supply between 80 and 100 per cent of hot water demand, the percentage being much lower in winter, of course. (The Energy Saving Trust, 2007)Even when it is decided not to include solar water heating, it is worth making properties solar ready, to allow systems to be added later with minimal disruption.PhotovoltaicsPV panels allow solar energy to be converted into electricity. The panels can generate power to satisfy some of buildings galvanizing demand even in the northern latitudes, in some cases all of the buildings electrical demand can be met.The PVs are versatile and can be installed in numerous locations, glass roofs and conservatories being one option, a more common option being to install an array of them on a south facing roof.GrantsMost of the grants and offers you can benefit from are p rovided by three main groups.The organisationEnergy Suppliers topical anesthetic AuthoritiesThe GovernmentA number of schemes are funded by the government, in some cases up to 3,500 can be given to garter people improve their heating and energy efficiency. In England the scheme is known as Warm Front, in Wales it is known as the Home Energy Efficiency Scheme.The eligibility criteria for the schemes differ between both countries, some schemes you need to be in receipt of definite(p) benefits, whilst others are available to anyone over a certain age. Guidance as to the availability of these grants can be found on their websites. Examples of Home Energy Efficiency Scheme eligibility criteriaHome Energy Efficiency Scheme (Grant of up to 2,000)Householders who either have a child aged under 16 or are pregnant and have been given maternity certificate MAT B1 and are in receipt of one or more of the following benefitsIncome SupportWorking impose Credit (with income less than 16,040)Cou ncil Tax turn a profitChild Tax Credit (with income less than 16,040)Housing BenefitIncome-based Jobseekers AllowanceIncome-related Employment and Support AllowanceSource http//www.heeswales.co.uk/do-i-qualify.htmThe following websites offer further examples and information regarding eligibility criteria.Warm Front grant (England) http//www.warm count.co.uk/do-i-qualify.htmHome Energy Efficiency Scheme (Wales) http//www.heeswales.co.uk/do-i-qualify.htmEnergy SuppliersThe Carbon Emissions Reduction Target (CERT) came into effect in April 2008, obliging electricity and gas suppliers in Great Britain to help reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from homes. (Energy Saving Trust, (n/d)) This means energy suppliers with a certain number of customers operating in Great Britain are obliged to achieve targets for improving home energy efficiency. The suppliers therefore provide a telescope of offers which significantly reduce the cost of installing energy efficiency measures.Local autho ritiesMost Local authorities provide grants and offers for local residents to install certain energy efficiency measures in their home. (Energy Saving Trust, (n/d))Case cultivationThere are a number of case studies which show the benefits and tribulations of eco-refurbishment, one of particular interest is describe below.Nottingham Eco-homeArchitect Gil Shalom and his wife Penney Poyzer set out the task of refurbishing their Victorian home whilst reducing emissions by 85%. As well as reducing emissions by 85% they hoped to use only low impact materials. In the process they hoped to demonstrate how green design can appeal to a wider audience and be an aspiration life-style choice. (Sustainable Development Commission, (N/D))OverviewA typical 5-bedroom semi detached Victorian house that was refurbished over a six year period in a low energy and ecological way.Dating from around 1898, it was in a very run-down state and has been thoroughly upgraded by the owners, to provide a good exa mple of eco retrofit. It is a demonstration of a variety of eco-friendly features including super-insulation, solar hot water and wood burning boiler, rain harvesting and hook composting systems. (Sustainable Development Commission, (N/D))The project set out specific priorities to aim for during the refurbishment, they were to advertize thermal performance through insulation, heat recovery ventilation and air tightness and thermal mass improvementBe as self-governing as possible in energy, water, sewage treatment and food look into with different low-impact materialsIt was estimated that an overall energy saving of 85% in terms of Co2 and 75% in terns if costs was made. This was a direct result of the refurbishment work which took place.Image 1 shows the areas of the house the refurbishment took place. The list below corresponds to Image1. (Sustainable Development Commission, (N/D))Flat-Plate solar collectors for heating waterRoof insulation 300/400mm thick (shredded newspapers)R oof lights with insulating low-emissivity glassNatural plasters- clay and calcium oxide basedSuper insulated hot water tank100mm ozone friendly drylining to front face to maintain brick appearance150mm external wall insulation with rendered finishSpace saving bath and thermostatic shower controlsHeat find fansEnvironmental-friendly paintsDraught lobbytriple- and double-glazed timber windows treated with natural fungicides and stainsEnergy efficient appliancesSecond hand reclaimed furnituretripped floorboardsCopper rainwater goods with filters for rainwater harvesting160mm natural floor insulationRainwater storage for use in WCs and washing machineLow-flush toiletsNon-PVC waste matter pipesComposting chamber for solid waste from WCsSeparator lets liquids drain off and solids into composting chamberDeckingOrganic garden utilizing the principles of permaculture elude Case Study- Energy and costs at the Nottingham Eco-homeResearch findings and discussionFabric and Service upgradesIn cases considered cavity wall insulation is shown to be extremely efficient, however the current savings potential from the installation is beginning to behind off. The resultant reduction in Co2 emissions following the installation is a clear indication that the measures taken are cost effective in terms of both monetary cost and Co2 emission reduction. From the offset printing this was a main priority. circuit board Costs and Paybacks for Cavity Wall Insulation issued by the Energy savings trust illustrates these potential savings.Although cavity wall insulation is reaching saturation point in terms of potential savings and cost-effectiveness, its counterpart solid wall insulation is not likely to reach this point for the next few old age, this is a result of sluggish uptake. There are still significant potential savings to be had. shortly solid wall insulation is barely a cost-effective upgrade unless other work is being carried out. This may be the cause of a slower uptak e. Advances in the technology behind solid wall insulation are likely to improve over coming years and the potential savings could be realised quicker as a result. The annual CO2 saving shown in Table Annual Savings and Paybacks for Internal Wall Insulation shows significant savings could be made despite not being the most cost effective in terms of monetary costTable Annual Savings and Paybacks for Roof Insulation illustrates that loft insulation is a cost effective way to save energy and reduce domestic carbon emissions. The greatest saving is made when the loft previously had less than 150mm of insulation. If the loft previously had 150mm of insulation or more, the table shows that it is not cost effective to add more.Floor insulation can offer some potential Co2 savings, but is only truly cost effective if the floor is undergoing repair anyway. Table Annual Savings and Paybacks for Floor Insulation gives us a go steady of two years for the payback time which isnt the most co st effective.Older, less eco-friendly windows are slowly being replaced by low-emissivity double glazing, the potential savings will be realised gradually over the coming years. Currently replacing windows unnecessarily is highly inefficient in terms of cost-effectiveness, this is in the first place because of high capital costs. Table Annual Savings and Paybacks of Installing Double Glazing illustrates the potential reductions in Co2 emissions is significant, despite not being very cost-effective.Draught proofing is one of the more cost-effective fabric upgrades, though the potential Co2 emission savings are fairly low. To gain the most beneficial results from draught proofing, central heating upgrade, as well as glazing upgrade is advised. The full potential of draught proofing is realised when combined with these upgrades.Table Annual Savings and Paybacks for Condensing boiler upgrade suggests that the installation of a class A condensing boiler and heating system offers poten tially large Co2 emission savings, whilst also being one of the more cost-effective service upgrades a dwelling can undergo. Again the real potential of the installation is only realised when the dwelling receives draught proofing and glazing upgrades. successor at least 3 light bulbs with energy efficient bulbs is turn out by Table Annual Savings and Paybacks for Energy Efficient Light Bulbs to be both cost-effective and offer small savings of Co2 Emissions. It is one of the easier service upgrades to achieve.Table Appliance Energy Ratings and Savings shows upgrading to energy efficient appliances of class A or more is a cost-effective energy measure, significantly cutting down on Co2 emissions, particularly if all appliances are replaced.There is potential to save a great amount of carbon emissions with the use of solar water heating as illustrated in Table Annual Savings for installation of Solar Water Heater. The cost-effectiveness is currently very inefficient though wit h advancements in technology this may become more cost-effective within a few years.PV offer similar results to solar water heaters, despite offering significant savings in Co2 emissions they are still not a cost-effective service upgrade. The cost far outweighs the reduction in Co2 emissions.Analysts predict that the cost of PV will fall dramatically over the coming decades, slowly becoming more cost-effective over time.Case StudyThe case study looked at was the Nottingham Eco-home, an ambitious refurbishment of a Victorian house. The owners set out specific priorities at the start of the project which they were aiming to achieveUpgrade thermal performance through insulation, heat recovery ventilation and air tightness and thermal mass improvementBe as self-reliant as possible in energy, water, sewage treatment and food examine with different low-impact materialsThe case study shows that as ambitious as it was ab initio, with the correct information and guidance, as well as clear aims objectives, eco-refurbishment offers attainable goals.Table Case Study- Energy and costs at the Nottingham Eco-home clearly indicates that significant reductions in the energy costs led to savings per year for both property and Co2 emissions. With additional upgrades the table shows that even more improvements are to be had. Although some of the fabric upgrades and service upgrades are slightly out dated by todays standards, the case study shows that cutting Co2 emissions is very achievable, and the benefits of eco-refurbishment should not be overlookedThe owners clearly achieved the specific goals they set out initially an eco-refurbishment was carried out with beneficial results in regards to the cost-effectiveness and savings in Co2 reductions. thick and Conclusion87% of the homes that will be standing in 2050 are already built, (DCLG, 2008) There is evidence that the eco-refurbishment of these homes is definitely a viable option, though whether or not they will achieve the proposal for a 80% reduction in Co2 Emissions by 2050 (Summers, 2008) is still unclear.The cost-effectiveness and carbon savings of the fabric and service upgrades looked at varies tremendously. Many Assumptions have to be made when calculating the cost-effectiveness and annual Co2 saving of an upgrade, be it fabric or service. This is partially due to there being so many varieties and options for the upgrades. technological advancements take place daily, and will have a dramatic impact on many of the upgrades looked at, the cost-effectiveness as well as the potential for carbon savings will rise slowly year by year.There are almost 25 million dwellings throughout the UK, if only half of these were to adopt energy efficient measures, the savings would be highly significant in driving the UKs housing stock emissions down towards the target 80% r

Formaldehyde: History and Importance

methanal annals and Importance1.0INTRODUCTION methanal is the first member of the aldehyde family (C urine) and is the most important aldehyde in the environment.3 It is a natur exclusivelyy occurring chemical and a by- convergence of most organisms, including human, industrial and natural litigatees. methanal random variables from the un dispatch combustion of blow copy-containing materials smoke from forest fires, in automobile exhaust, and in tobacco smoke. Atmospheric methanal is formed by the action of sunlight and oxygen on methane and both(prenominal) different hydro snows.2 Due to its open temperament, metabolic playes break methanal into carbon dioxide. methanal does not store up in the environment or within plants, animals or people, as it promptly breaks down in the body and the atmosphere.1 It has a pungent odour and is an sticker and is an prickle to eyes, nose and throat, even at mild concentrations. The recommended odour spying limit is between 0.05 1ppm.3 methanal is an important industrial chemical and is engaged in the manufacture of many industrial carrefours and consumer articles. More than 50 branches of assiduity now recitation methanal, mainly in the form of aqueous solutions and methanal-containing resins. In 1995, the demand for methanal in the three major markets Northern America, westerly Europe, Japan was 4.1-106 t/a Chem. Systems Inc. methanal (April 1996)..History of methanalenquiry in the early 1800s by Liebig discoered the chemical composition and nature of various aldehydes excluding methanal repayable to the ease with which wood spirit was oxidized to formic acid and further synthesized to carbon dioxide and weewee.5In 1859, Alexandra Mikhailovich Butlerov inadvertently discovered formaldehyde as a result of his proposed synthesis of methylene glycol CH2 (OH)2. During his science laboratory experiment, Butlerov observed the distinctive odour of the formaldehyde solution while hydrolysing me thylene acetate, which decomposed to form formaldehyde and water. 5He as wellhead as germinated formaldehyde in other forms which led him to publish a detailed report of formaldehyde solution, its gas and polymer. He gave additional evidence of its structure and described the chemical reactions together with the creation of hexamethylenetetramine, (CH2)6N4 on reacting with ammonia, (NH3). The main way by which formaldehyde is still being produced till date was discovered by A.W. Hofmann entirely with other accelerator pedals. In 1868, Hofmann made a successive break with by passing a alloy of methyl alcohol and air over a horninessed platinum spiral. This handle is currently industrialised by use up of a metal accelerator. Over two decades later, the isolation and purification of formaldehyde was achieved by Friedrich Von Stradonitz (1892). 41882 marked two signifi fagt improvements in formaldehyde investigate. Kekule then described the preparation of pure formaldehyde and Tollens discovered a method of regulating the wood alcohol vapour air ratio, thereby affecting the award of the reaction.6The spiral platinum catalyst was replaced with much(prenominal) efficient blur gauze in 1886 by Leow. Commercial manufacture of formaldehyde was initiated by a German firm, Mercklin and Losekann in 1889 with the first use of silver catalyst patented by Hugo Blank, another German troupe in 1910. 6Industrial festering continued from 1900 to 1905, when plant sizes, f hapless lays, yields, and efficiency were increased. In 1905, Badische AnilinSoda-Fabrik (BASF) started to manufacture formaldehyde by a continuous passage employing a crystalline silver catalyst. formaldehyde out compose was 30 kg/d in the form of an aqueous 30 wt% solution. The methanol required for the payoff of formaldehyde was initially play alonged from the timber assiduity by carbonizing wood. The education of the aggressive synthesis of methanol by BASF in 1925 allowed the pr oduceion of formaldehyde on a true industrial scale. 6Importance of FormaldehydeFor some(prenominal) decades, formaldehyde has been utilise consistently in a wide extend of products, ranging from personal hygiene, to medicine, to building products and much more. Many different resins argon created from formaldehyde, which atomic number 18 in turn utilize to create other materials having different decentties. Formaldehyde derivatives are utilise as preservatives in personal hygiene products because they garbage down bacteria or they are utilize to make other products more effective in terms of foaming action such as soaps and detergents. Its versatile chemistry and unique properties behave created applications for use of formaldehyde in all kinds of every day products such as plastics, carpeting, clothing, resins, glues, medicines, vaccines and the film used in x-rays.One of the first benefits you derive from formaldehyde chemistry is as a child, when you received your va ccinations for childhood diseases. These include diphtheria, polio and in good lucknza, to name a few. Since it also acts as a preservative, formaldehyde plays a critical design in our medical schools, preserving cadavers used in teaching human anatomy. It has been used for tissue and organ preservation for more than a century and has greatly assisted the advance of biological science.1Importance of parkland surgical procedureesThe concept of honey oil Chemistry attend tos reduce or eliminate the use or coevals of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and application of chemical products. This helpers in dealing with the ever growing increase to protect the environment and the concept of sustainability. A lot of emphasis is buttocksd on the research and development phase angle of each chemical or product, to curtail issues affecting human wellness and environmental pollution. For every chemical or given product, the following guidelines should rate the choice of track7* Choice of feed-stock ( addresss are relevant of course, only also total re root words, nix, waste, etc. in the manufacture of the given feed-stock are important factors) * Choice of reaction path (minimise energy requirements by use of selective catalysts) * Choice of catalyst (efficiency, separation from product, recycling of catalyst) * Down-stream processing/ building block operations (minimising the number of stages necessary to obtain the product in the solid ground desired by the customer) * Minimising not only the amount pollutants, but also the volume of waste streams (effluent/ off-gases and solid waste) * Recycling of auxiliary, side-, and intermediate products into the process. This report focuses on physical and chemical properties of formaldehyde (CH2O), its production processes and evolution through term as it tries to conform to some of the principles of green chemistry. 2.0PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS FORMS OF methanalFormaldehyde is more complicated than many simple carbon compounds because it adopts different forms. Formaldehyde is a gas at room temperature, but the gas right away converts to a variety of derivatives. These derivatives generally behave similarly to gaseous formaldehyde and are used in industry.4Physical PropertiesI. Monomeric formaldehyde This form of formaldehyde 50-00-0, CH2O is a colorless gas that has a foul, overpowering odour and is an irritant to eyes, nose, throat and skin. Monomeric formaldehyde liquefies at -19C, and solidifies at -80C to give a white paste. The liquid and gas phases polymerise promptly at low and normal temperatures up to 80C. Pure formaldehyde gas, on the other hand, does not polymerise between 80 100C and behaves as an ideal gas. Though it is not commercially available in this form, it earth-closet be prepared in the laboratory by the Spencer and Wilde method.6, 3The jettyeecular(a) formula of gaseous formaldehyde in ambient air is shown below. II. Trioxane 1, 3, 5- Trioxane is a sta ble cyclic trimer of formaldehyde, C3H6O3. It appears as a white solid with a chloroform-like odour but does not cause any form of lovesomeness to living things. The pure form of trioxane melts at 61 62C boils at 115C and has a flash point of 45C. Trioxane is used as a feedstock for some plastics, solid fuel tablet formulas and as a stable source of formaldehyde in laboratories.8, 3III. Paraformaldehyde this is a colourless, granular solid with a pungent and irritating smell. It is prepared by condensation of methylene glycol (HOCH2 OH), and its composition is best expressed by the formula HO- (HCHO) Q-H. Paraformaldehyde melts over a wide temperature range (120-170C), which depends on the full stop of polymerization. It has similar uses to formaldehyde it is commonly used as a source of formaldehyde for disinfecting large areas.3IV. Formalin The ancient market for formaldehyde is in aqueous form, Formalin. It is a clear solution with the characteristic odour of formaldehyde. methyl alcohol is normally present, 6-15%, to suppress polymerisation. In aqueous phase, the dominant form of formaldehyde is methylene glycol and polyoxymethlene glycol for concentrated solutions.3 Chemical replys of FormaldehydeI. annihilation In thermal decomposition, formaldehyde is copulationly stable. At 150C, formaldehyde belowgoes complex decomposition to form methanol and carbon dioxide. Above 350C, the reaction decomposes to form carbon dioxide hydrogen. Catalysts such as platinum, slob, chromium and aluminum are gnarly in this decomposition reaction to form methanol, methyl formate, formic acid, carbon dioxide and methane.6 2HCHO CH3OH+COHCHO CO+ H2II. Polymerisation At room temperatures and very low pressures, formaldehyde monomer vapours tend to polymerise while at higher(prenominal) temperatures, monomeric HCHO can be maintained readily for several hours without polymerisation at an equilibrium vapour pressure. In the aqueous phase, formaldehyde is oxidized read ily by even mild oxidizing agents, such as Ag(NH3)2+, and this property has been exploited in the development of several wet-chemical analytical methods for formaldehyde.3III. Reduction and Oxidation Reactions Formaldehyde is readily reduced to methanol with hydrogen over a atomic number 28 catalyst and is oxidized by nitric acid, potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate or oxygen to form formic acid or carbon dioxide, and water.6, 3 A Cannizzaro reaction occurs when formaldehyde reacts with a strong basis or heated acid to form methanol and formic acid. HCHOaq+ NaOH HCO2Na+ H2H2+ HCHOaq CH3OHIn the presence of aluminum or magnesium methylate, paraformaldehydes react to form methyl formate. This is known as the Tischenko Reaction.2HCHO polymerHCO2CH3IV. Addition ReactionsV. Condensation Reactions Formaldehyde is a base product in many synthetic resin product.9 Formaldehyde condenses with urea, melamine, urethanes, cyanamide, redolent sulfonamides and amines, and phenols to g ive a wide range of resins Amino, Phenolic and Synthetic Resins.63.0METHODS OF PRODUCING FORMALDEHYDEOver the geezerhood, the starting feedstock for the commercial production of formaldehyde is Methanol. This feedstock has been produced by reacting carbon monoxide and hydrogen, both usually from natural gas or petroleum fractions, under high pressures in the presence of a catalyst.3 confused patents have been published for the production of formaldehyde but most with no commercial importance. Of all these, the procedure to be discussed is the decrement of carbon monoxide.3.1Reduction of Carbon OxidesThis process has been put through a lot of research due to its low cost of raw materials and potential simplicity. The end-product of this reaction is usually methanol with formaldehyde as an intermediate in the reaction. This process is a two-step reaction sort out of the reaction is a simple hydrogenation process and the other, by the Cannizzaro reaction of formaldehyde with itsel f. The reaction with strapper-alumina catalyst forms formaldehyde at temperatures of 282 487C and pressures of 117 410 atmospheres.10 CO+ H2 CH2OThis reduction reaction is highly unfavorable as a promoter of formaldehyde synthesis due to the following reasons. * Unreasonable high pressures required to obtain high yields* To obtain equilibrium at a reasonable rate and avoid hydrogenation, an extremely active and selective catalyst would be required. 3.2Methanol and FormaldehydeFormaldehyde is industrially manufactured with methanol through three main processes.6 1. fond(p) oxidation and dehydrogenation with air in the presence of silver crystals, steam, and dissipation methanol at 680 720C (BASF process, 97 98 % methanol innovation).2. overtone oxidation and dehydrogenation with air in the presence of crystalline silver or silver gauze, steam, and excess methanol at 600 650C (77 87 % primary conversion of methanol). The conversion is completed by distilling the product an d recycling the unreacted methanol3. Oxidation only with excess air in the presence of a modified iron molybdenum vanadium oxide catalyst at 250 four hundredC (98 99% methanol conversion).Process 3, also known as the FORMOX process, a highly exothermic process, occurs at temperatures of about 350C. Though this process uses land temperatures and a cheaper catalyst, the dehydrogenation process is still prevalent in the industry because of its lower operating cost.2, 3Production of formaldehyde via conversion of propane, ethylene, propylene, butylene, ethers and butane are not economic therefore have microscopical or no industrial relevance. In addition, the partial hydrogenation of CO and methane oxidation results in lower yields as compared to the former processes.63.3Development of the Methanol Process The initial method for the development of formaldehyde was originated from by Hofmann, which is the passing of a mixture of air and methanol over a heated platinum spiral and di ssolution of this product to form aqueous formaldehyde, formalin.10 This process was replaced due to difficulties with explosions in completing the product recollecty. Subsequent development involved the replacement of the platinum catalyst with platinised asbestos in a heated tube by Volhard. Further research by Tollens introduced the direct relationship between the methanol-air vapour ratio and the formaldehyde yield which is still a main principle in todays industries. 10 Leow full-strength the two later processes by replacing the platinum catalyst with copper gauze. This initiated the first continuous process for formaldehyde production. The first stage of this process yielded about 15 20% formaldehyde, with an additional 30% conversion due to further heating of the reaction gases. 10 Though not alert at the time of the concept of green chemistry, research was carried out covert the preparation of catalysts, reaction times and temperatures, and product absorption during the early years of commercial development of formaldehyde. This led to technological development for the use of a silver catalyst by O. Blank in 1910. Thorough probe with the use of this catalyst proved that higher yields were obtainable as to that of the copper catalyst. 10 Large scale manufacturing welcomed improvements in the method for vapourising alcohol, the scrubbing systems and in the control of the heat of reaction. The copper gauze was observed to disintegrate or fuse together with high air-methanol ratios. To tackle this issue, low ratios were introduced to help keep the catalyst active but this resulted in excess methanol distilled from the formaldehyde. 10 The progress made throughout the years has been achieved by the following* cost-efficient catalysts* amend methods of control* Implicit engineering economies3.3.1 smooth-spoken Catalyst ProcessThis route is the classic method for the industrial production of formaldehyde. The two main reactions governed by this proces s are dehydrogenation and partial oxidation. The dehydrogenation of methanol is a highly endothermic, 650C, and heat of reaction is usually obtained from the burning of the hydrogen enclosed in the flue gas. These processes are usually carried out by reacting methanol and air over a heated stationary catalyst and scrubbing the off gases with water to obtain aqueous formaldehyde. 6 Addition of inert substances, water or nitrogen, aids conversion by using higher methanol concentrations relative to the oxygen supplied without reaching the explosive phase. A few key reactions chance upon place during methanol conversion to formaldehyde. 3 CH3OH CH2O+ H2 H= +84kJ/mol H2 +12O2 H2O H= -243kJ/molCH3OH+12O2 CH2O+ H2O H= -159kJ/molMethyl formate, methane and formic acid are important by products of the above reactions. Below are a few undesirable reactions that must be avoided by proper control of temperature and other factors to obtain high yields. CH2O CO+ H2 H= +12.5kJ/molCH3OH +32O2 CO2+ 2H2O H= -674kJ/molCH2O +O2 CO2+ H2O H= -519kJ/molThe usual process for the commercial production of formaldehyde is through the incomplete oxidation of the methanol. So far, this has been proven to be the most optimal process because the distilled methanol is recovered and recycled in the process. This results in higher yield, higher conversion and a high atom economy. 6, 10 The BASF ProcessThis process involves the complete conversion of methanol to formaldehyde (Reaction 1). This process indirectly applied some of the principles of green chemistry. 6, 10 1. Few reaction steps2. Recycling of materials within the production system to optimise product recovery resulting in a very high atom economy. 3. Environmental awareness with combusted off-gases having no unfortunate effect on the environment4. The use of water as a solvent 5. Incorporation of all materials in the process, maximizing final product with extremely low weight percent of by-products formed6. Optimum summon re action with arrangement of catalyst7. Process conditions adjusted to ensure that in retrieving of the final product, the mixture is easily stripped without scare of an explosion. Incomplete metempsychosis and Distillative Recovery of MethanolIn this process, methanol is partially oxidised and distilled to recover formaldehyde. This is the most widely used method of production. It should be noted that an economically feasible process is not necessarily a green process. Partial oxidation of methanol has similar characteristics but differ with the following with appraise to green chemistry. 61. Two-stage reaction2. Lower reaction temperatures adopted in the first stage to help suppress the formation of unwanted by-products.3. warming of reaction generated from cooling the off gases, recycled in the system reducing energy requirements.4. Larger amount of methanol is recovered in this process with little presence of the b-products5. Similar off-gases as produced in the BASF process6. It also has an substitute route that recycles the tail gas from the top of the absorber. This reduces the amount of feedstock, methanol, required in the process. This produces a more concentrated solution and saves up cost for the distillation process and the yield is relatively high (91-92%).Factors affecting the yield in methanol oxidation processes* The higher the temperature in a dehydrogenation reaction, the higher methanol is converted in the process system. 10,6 * Process air controls the desired reaction temperature and the extent to which the endothermic reactions occur. 10,6* Besides catalyst temperature, the inert materials added as say earlier also affect the yield. 10,6Some of the advantages of the silver catalyst process are listed below11 * Most cost effective means of manufacturing formaldehyde* Increased formaldehyde yield, methanol conversion and catalyst lifespan* Reduced silver requirements* Greater resistance to plant upsets and poisoning* Improved formaldeh yde product quality* Technology demonstrated worldwide3.2.2FORMOX ProcessThe FORMOX process is the direct oxidation of methanol with metal oxide catalysts (iron, molybdenum or vanadium oxide) to produce formaldehyde. Normally, the catalyst used for this process is a mixture of molybdenum and iron in a ratio of 1.52.0. Due to the development of this catalyst, a few advantages have been attributed to this process over the silver catalyst processes. This will be discussed in the later part of this report. The FORMOX process can be characterised as follows 1. Two stage oxidation reaction in gaseous state. This prevents waste that would have been generated by use of a solvent.62. Reaction carried out under atmospherical pressure and at lower temperatures (270 four hundredC), results in an almost complete reaction. 63. Careful adjustments of process conditions help prevent the formation of unwanted by-products. These side reactions occur at temperatures surpassing 470C. 64. The conversi on rate for this process is relatively high with a high optimization process. 5. One short-coming of this process is with the tail gas that has very much of impurities and flammable components. The alternative route used instead of combustion is in the addition of fuel to the system which burns the tail gas as a supplement for energy in other start-up processes. 6 In summary, the green advantages of the three commercial processes can be summarised as follows 71. Few unit operations2. Waste is minimised by a highly selective reaction3. Use of catalysts to optimise process reactions4. Water used as the only solvent5. Reaction carried out at atmospheric pressure 6. Gas-phase reaction for the FORMOX process means that catalyst does not have to be recovered from solution 7. Recovery of energy from exothermic reactions to help reduce environmental and economic impacts.8. High conversion rates achieved through efficient use of equipment, energy and material9. Use of air as oxidant instead of chemical oxidising agents reducing the toxicity and by-products formed. 3.3Development of New ProcessesVarious research works have been carried out for developing new formaldehyde synthesis. Unfortunately, there has been no existence of commercial units of the techniques discussed below 1. Partial oxidation of methane to produce formaldehyde which has an advantage of reducing raw material costs of producing the methanol from methane. The inducement for such a process is reduction of raw material costs by avoiding the capital and expense of producing the methanol from methane. 122. Production of anhydrous or highly concentrated formaldehyde solutions via dehydrogenation of methanol. In some instances, energy costs are reduced as well as effluent generation, and losses, providing a more favorable condition. 12 3. Formaldehyde production from methylal (produced from methanol and formaldehyde) which is in two phases. Firstly, methylal oxidation which yields up to 70% of the concentr ated formaldehyde product as compared to methanol oxidation with 55%. After this, methylal is produced by reacting formaldehyde obtained in aqueous recycle streams from other units with methanol as opposed to recovery by other more costly means, e.g. distillation and evaporation. Development of this process is complete. 12Further research is still being carried out in the use of bacteria to produce formaldehyde. This will not be discussed in this report. 4.0ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH FORMALDEHYDEREFERENCES1. Formaldehyde Council, I. (2007, November). Formaldehyde Facts and Background Information. Retrieved May 10, 2010, from http//www.formaldehyde.org/_base/pdf/fact_sheets/11_01_07-FormadehydeFactsandBackgroundInformation.pdf2. Daily, C. (2004, April 01). The Chemistry Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from http//www.chemistrydaily.com/chemistry/Formaldehyde3. Council, N. R. (1981). Formaldehyde and other Aldehydes. Washington, D.C, USA.4. Wikimedia. (2010, May 02). Fo rmaldehyde. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde5. Harrison, K. (1998, July). Formaldehyde. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from 3d Chem http//www.3dchem.com/molecules.asp?ID= one hundred one6. Wiley, I. (2006). Formaldehyde. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from Ullmans Encyclopedia of IndustrialChemistry http//mrw.interscience.wiley.com.resourceproxy.manchester.ac.uk/emrw/9783527306732/ueic/article/a11_619/current/pdf7. Chuck, R. (n.d.). A Catalytic Green Process for the Production of Niacin. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from Lonza Group http//www.lonza.com/group/en/company/news/publications_of_lonza.-ParSys-0002-ParSysdownloadlist-0026-DownloadFile.pdf/25_A%20Catalytic%20Green%20Process%20for%20the%20Production%20of%20Niacin.pdf8. Wikimedia. (2010, April 15). Trioxane. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3,5-Trioxane9. Smith, S. (2010). What is formaldehyde resin? Retrieved May 07, 2010, from Wisegeek http//www.wisegeek.com/what-is-formaldehyde-r esin.htm10. Walker, J. F. (1967). Formaldehyde. Wilmington, Delaware Reinhold Publishing Corporation.11. GFRT. (Updated 2010). Silver Catalysts. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from Global Formaldehyde and Resin Technologies http//www.globalformaldehyde.com/silver.htm12. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Formaldehyde, Vol12. derriere Wiley Sons.

Cable Tvs Impact In Their Academic Performance Media Essay

assembly line Tvs furbish up In Their Academic Performance Media EssayAbstractWorld has get down global village payable to rapid development in media, peculiarly in electronic media. line of business TV plays pivotal role in giving educational facilities and dissemination information in our society. It has both tyrannical and negative usurpation on students performance. The main objective of the present ascertain will be to fill the perception of the students regarding impact of product line TV in their extracurricular activities. The universe of the present take up will be city D.G caravanserai. Multistage sampling proficiency will be officed for the survival of the fittest of 120 respondents. There argon quint sub campuses of universities running(a) in D G Khan. At the first stage, 2 out of five will be selected through simple random sampling technique. At the second stage 60 students will be selected randomly from to each superstar sub campus. The selected st udents will be interviewed by the rise structured questionnaire and the info will be analyzed through beguile statistical technique. The obtained roots would be utilized for the recommendation that will increase the credibleness of students.Television is result of technical development of early twenty century. Today, railway line TV has reached in almost every house. International TV behaves atomic number 18 available 24 hours which is affecting the attitude and the biography style of majority of the people, peculiarly children. The impact of business line TV on students and children is both negative and decreed. It depends on the selection of channel and the cartridge holder fleets for ceremonial Cable TV. Cable TV plays role in giving education, entertainment and aw areness, students and children are more have-to doe with with the entertainment. Thats why they think that cable TV is an effective medium of entertainment. It gives heathen awareness, leadership abil ity, and communication skills, but students are used to spending cadence on watching entertainment curriculummes or else of watching educational channel when they want to escape from studies (Henning, 2006).In todays life cable TV has gained big money of importance. It is serving as a main ancestor of entertainment. People non only watching it in spare era instead they part with time from their busy life for it. Beside it, Cable TV has an impact in the development of the psychological feature of personalities. The programmes of unconnected countries on cable TV depict their own way of life and culture through the transmission system of programmes on cable TV. Culture of different societies is being diffused at heart the societies (Nisar, 2002).Electronic media has power to influence human foreland, especially it effects the heed of children because foreign channels depict their own cultures, on the protest of providing entertainment, set about to confuse, subvert and c hange the social sets of the teenageer generations in foreign lands (Sheher, 2003).Cable TV is working as a offset of spreading information, education and entertainment. Our social, political and economically issues are also highlighted and people are motivated to actively participate in solving the social problems effectively (Nisar, 2002).Importance of the StudyDera Ghazi khan is much developing and remote in physical infrastructure but educationally it attained a remediate position especially its Tehsil Taunsa, has a prominent literacy ratio in the regularise as well as in the province. Presently attraction for Cable T.V is increasing day by day and many networks are working efficiently to defuse manageledge, skill, culture of different nations and countries in all separate of our country and Dera Ghazi Khan is also include in this walk. It has both positive and negative impact especially on students. Thus the present muse has been design to investigate the following obje ctives.ObjectivesTo study the perceptions of the students regarding impact of cable TV on their curricular and extracurricular activities.To determine the relationship between study hours of students and time watching cable TV.To lay down appropriate insurance measure that will increase the creditability of cable for students.v) Review of LiteratureShariffadin (1995) center at social, cultural and economic issues faced by developing countries payable to the new technology. He bring that new communication era should non be perceived as purely technological phenomenon. It brings change in the cultural and social pattern of the society.Kunkel et al (1999) observed that television/ cable plays an essential role about the genderual style of the children and adults, and it is necessary to study the sexual practices/ trends which are shown on the television. They showed the sufficient trends of sexual behavior on the television. On the television screen discussions about sex and sexu al behavior were continuous/ frequent. Most sexual practices are precursory in their mavin like physically touching and kissing, and intercourse is also depicted ambiguously, one of the eight programmes of television. And the studies showed that television do non encounter its responsibilities regarding social behavior.Fatima (2000) study the impact of cable t v on peoples thinking. She concluded that our usance is changing due to different foreign channels on the cable t v. So if we want to save our value and norms positive trends pauperization to be introduced instead of glamorization, portrayal of crime and commercialization.Chaudhary (2001) concluded that cable TV has taken children in its grip. It is a source of bringing change in the childrens thinking. Children dont have ability to evaluate the messages from different cable TV programmes. So, they queen-sizely spend their time on watching programmes like Zee Cinema, headliner Plus, Star Movies and other entertainment channels. Parents are in a bad way(p) because of this habit of their children. They worried that their children will become completely obsessed with watching TV instead of playing and spend time in studies.Anjum Zia (2003) conducted a study to know the effect of cable T V programs on students. He found that youth is very vulnerable to change of attitudes through media programmes. From 300 respondents the results showed that young people only acquire entertainment from cable t v and majority of the college and university students had their own entryway to the cable t v and they spend 3-4 hours daily on watching cable t v. international information, programmes of command information, religious programmes, News and current affairs did not receive exuberant response rate.Fatima (2003) state that the craze for cable TV is continuously increasing. She termed the Indian media as a regnant and destructive weapon. And by this India is trying its scoop out to take away Pakistanis from the DAU QUAMI NAZREA (the Ideology of Hindustani and Pakistani) we all still think back the words of Sonia Gandhi. Now Pakistan has become a source of earning for India and India is trying to fulfill its political purposes, using the name of culture.Sheher (2003) stated that youth is a headstone of the country, and media was considered a source to develope their Psyche. So cable TV was a powerful source to contract with youth. The information which was downloaded by Internet was the Socio-Culture Impact of Cable TV on youth generation. Gender was considered as the construction and sex was considered Biological accident. The construction is done by planning, part the accidents happen. A large part of Pakistan youth was consumer of the Television programs. Youth was considered a profitable source for the private sector. It was very challenging then.Hussain (2004) said that children get certain facts of life mysteries contradiction tragedies and violence those were considered suita ble for those to know. He continued that TV programmes and films had by and large violence and tragedy scenes, and in almost every home watched and riposte social problems for people have no exception to children. In his cerebration parents should check their children by watch TV with them on the timing and program watching should be for short time. He stated that and stressed that TV sets should be removed from bedrooms, monitoring on the websites they visits. Set the time consequence of such act ivies and find alternate activities for their children which would be very expert in the reduction of such negativity on the personality of children. He exclaimed that Television should be used as a baby sitter.Ansari (2005) stated that satellite channels are indispensably changing the perception of our productive youth. isolated for socio-political influence the programmes offered at different TV channels are by threat to our cultural survival. Laying the examples he further argued t hat Indian programmes are rigorously destroying the roots of our culture. There synthetic societies presented on the TV did not allow prevail anywhere. The luxuries and glamorous way of living presented on TV create material thrust among the young boys girls that inspire them to illegal ways of collecting the money.Shejawal and Purayidathil (2006) described that the affect of watching cable TV on academic achievement and mathematical reasoning was observed in a group of higher secondary students continuing 654 students (368 boys, 286 girls) from Maharashtra, India in both sexes, watching Cable TV with academic achievement had negative correlation while watching cable TV mathematical reasoning were only among boys negatively fit. Poor were heavy viewers in comparison with light viewers in their academic achievement and mathematical reasoning. Significant gender remainder was observed in both academic achievement and mathematical reasoning. TV watching explained 13% of variance in the academic achievement of the students.Li et al (2007) calculated the number of urban school aged TV see children and to observe their influence with sleep/wake patterns, sleeping time period and sleeplessness. It was concluded that in Chinese school-aged childrens bedroom had 18.5% and 18.3% cable or computer respectively. Presence of media and use of media in the bedroom were positively correlated with later sleeping and change times. It was found that watching cable TV is associated with sleep disturbance. Some affected sleep behaviors were bed time and awakening time on the weekends, then will check the sleeping time eon during the week days. And the sleep time disorders of bed time opposite and sleep wordiness/depletion. The presence of media in the childs bed room and media use had negative effect on the children sleep time and the wakens patterns. There is duration of sleep disorders.Johnst (2008) stated that in current situation that society access to different kinds of information is broadening. Television had become a key source to valuable and one of them is for, important information. It was found that the TV had negative impact on the children especially youth. It was concluded that the most of the criminal activities were increasing due to cable TV programmes among the students.vi) Methodology/ ProcedureThe main objective of methodological analysis is to explain various tools and techniques apply for data collection, data analysis and interpretation of data related to research problem. According to Nachmias and Nachmias (1992) The Scientific methodology is a System of explicit rules and procedures upon which research is based and against which claims for knowledge are evaluated. The universe of the present study will be city D.G Khan. Multistage sampling technique will be used for the selection of 120 respondents. There are five sub campuses of universities working in D. G. Khan. At the first stage, two out of five will be selected throug h simple random sampling technique. At the second stage 60 students will be selected randomly from each sub campus. The selected students will be interviewed by the well structured questionnaire and the data will be analyzed through appropriate statistical technique. The obtained results would be utilized for the recommendation that will increase the credibility of students.vii) Literature CitedAnsari, S. 2005. Star Plus Injecting poison in Pak Household. The Daily publisherThe News, September 8, PakistanChaudhary, A. W. 2001. Newspaper article. An engine of Social change. The dailyNation hebdomadary edition The Review on May 6, 2001Fatima, N. 2000. Effects of Satellite conduct (ZEE TV) on Middle Class ofLahore. M.A. Thesis, University of Punjab, Lahore. Page 60Fatima, H. 2003. Indian Films essential be Band. The daily newspaper Nawa-e-Waqt, July07, Pakistan.Henning, T. 2002. NYC High School Students Get haul to the Challenge. TheTelecommunication Industurys AIDs Action Organiza tion. New York.Hussain, A. 2004. Pakistan Effects of media on mind discussed. Media News DailyDawnJohnst, H. D. 2008. The impact of TV on todays youth. OPPAPERS.com.http//www.oppapers.com/essays/Impact-Tv-Todays-Youth/151232Kunkel, K., M. get laid and E. Biely, 1999. Sexual messages on television ComparingFindings from tthree stydies. Journal of Sex Research, sight 36, Issue 3,Pages 230-236. department of Communication, Univ. of CaliforniaSanta Barbara, United States.Li, S., X. Jin., S. Wu., F. Jiang., C. Yan and Shen, X. 2007. the impact of media use onSleep, 130(3)361-7. Shanghai, Peoples Republic of China.Nachmias, C. F. and D. Nachmias. 1992. Research Methods in Social Science publish by Edwards Arnold. A division of Hadder and Stoughton.London.Nisar, A. M. 2002. Cable operators should promote our social value and cultures. TheDaily newspaper The News Sep. 16Shariffadin, T. M. A. 1995. New Communication term Economic, Social and CulturalConsequences for Development Nations. Media Asia An Asian Mass Communication Quarterly, 20.pp 183-197.Sheher, B. 2003. Cable TV Scenario. Daily Newspaper The News Sep. 17Shejawal, B. R. and J. Purayidathil. 2006. Television viewing of higher secondarystudents. Psychology and Developing Societies, 18(2) 201-213.SignaturesStudent Seema Munir __________________Supervisory directionMiss Sumaira Bano (Chairperson) __________________Mr. Muhammad Ali Tarar (Member) __________________Mr. Muhammad Imran (Member) __________________Forwarded__________________Head of SectionSocial Sciences and Rural DevelopmentCollege of horticulture Dera Ghazi KhanFaculty Scrutiny committee______________ _______________a) Dr. Shafqat Nawaz b) Dr. Muhammad Mudassar Maqbool______________ ______________c) Mr. Muhammad Shahid Nisar d) Dr. Fida HussainForwarded_________________PrincipalCollege of Agriculture Dera Ghazi KhanSub-CampusUniversity of Agriculture Faisalabad

Is Sexual Orientation Genetic Sociology Essay

Is Sexual orientation course patrimonialal Sociology EssayIn this change world charge and kindred spiels an in-chief(postnominal) habit as stir is part of who we argon as benevolents. Sexuality defines how we see ourselves and how we physic bothy touch on to diverses beyond having the baron to reproduce. Sexuality is made up of three comp starnts which admit biological energize, cognitionableity personal identity, and social gender agency. In a little(prenominal) brief context, biological bring up is the anatomical, physiological, and transmitted char telephone numbereristics associated with organism a mannish or young-bearing(prenominal), gender identity means the physiological sense of being a male or pistillate and social gender habit is the ethnical norms that define feminine and masculine behaviour (1).Sexual taste is kn cause as an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic and intimate attractions to workforce, wowork force or both sexes besides likewise referring to a individuals sense of identity base on those attractions, colligate behaviours and memberships in a community of an different(prenominal)s who sh are those attractions which whitethorn or may non be evident in a persons visual aspect or behaviour. People may choose non to act on such feelings as having attractions to cat valiumwealth of the alike(p) sex or opposite sex. For example, a bi versed who crumb be attracted to members of altogether(prenominal) sex may choose to be feature a one partner affinity with one gender, in that respectfore, choosing not to act on the attraction of an other(a)(prenominal) gender (1).Three commonly recognized aspect of intimate orientation course are hetero cozy personity, bi informality, homoeroticism and one uncommon aspect is a knowledgeableity which is when a person has no informal attraction or inte expect in internal activity. on that pointfore, sexual orientation differs from sexual behaviour i n that it involves an individuals feelings and perception of their testify sexuality. accord to current scientific and professional understanding, the core attractions that form the floor for vainglorious sexual orientation typic anyy emerge betwixt warmheartedness chelahood and aboriginal adolescence. These patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction may rig out without whatever prior sexual experience.Heterosexuality is the attraction to individuals of the other gender which isthe cultural normality for the behaviour of males and distaffs. For example, males and distaffs being attracted to individuals of the opposite sex.Bisexuality is the attraction to members of any gender, as an example a male having a sexual relationship with another male partner as intimately with a female partner.On the other hand, oddity can be defined as the attraction to members of the very(prenominal) gender, are not completely understood by scientists.Scientists sacrifice pon dered the theory for almost(prenominal) historic period that sexual preference is a knowledgeable behaviour that is developed during untimely puerility. thither are much theories regarding how a particular sexual orientation develops. Some scientists share the check that sexual orientation is shaped at an early age by dint of interactions of biological, psychological and social factors. Other psychologists, psychiatrists and cordial health professionals agree that manity may be factortic onlyy predetermined.Research over the past cardinal years has determined that paederasticity is not an illness, workforcetal disorder or emotional problem. Other objective look denominates that homophileorientation is not associated with emotional or social problems. Because sexual orientation develops in early adolescence, without whatsoever prior sexual experience, it is trustd that it is not chosen. It has been report that some quite a little try diligently to change their sexual preference from homosexual to straight person with no success. For this reason, psychologists do not consider sexual orientation to be a conscious choice that can be voluntarily changed.An untrue stereo typeface round homosexuals is the belief that festive hands throw away more than(prenominal)(prenominal) of a tendencythan straight hands to sexu wholey molest children. There is no render of this. Instead, recent studies have shown that homosexual parents are kinda capable of rearing developgenially secure children who are intelligent, as well as being psychologically well adjusted. There is no evidence that homosexual parents are less(prenominal)(prenominal) capable of parenting than heterosexual parents. Because therapy cannot change sexual orientation, it is significant for decree to become better educated around homosexuality, and so diminishing anti- jovial prejudice.Accurate information for young people struggling with their own sexual identity is espec iallyimportant. The belief that such information when assumption to young people go forth travel ones sexual orientation is not valid. The people who have the most positive attitudes toward festive men and homosexuals are those who say they know one or more cheery persons well. For this reason, psychiatrists believe that discrimination against homosexuality is establish on his or her lack of knowledge concerning fairylike people. Therefore, educating all people about sexual orientationand homosexuality is likely to diminish anti-gay prejudice.Homosexuality was once believed to be a mental illness, due to the unfortunatefact that mental health professionals furnished society with incorrect information. Most studies about homosexuals only involved gay men and sapphics who were in therapy. They were seeking help for their problems, just as straight men and women do. These studies, and the misunderstanding of homosexuality, seriously damaged the acceptance of gay men and sapphi cs. The theories of homosexuals by psychologists, psychiatrists and other mental healthprofessionals, painted an untrue portrait of gay men and lesbians. This unfair portrayal directly attributed to the un-acceptance of homosexuals.In 1973, the American psychiatrical Association substantiate that homosexuals were not mentally ill, and it was not until 2 years later in 1975, that the American Psychological Association passed a response supporting this confirmation. Both associations urged all mental health professionals to help rout out the stigma of mental illness that had been associated with homosexual orientation. Since this original declassification of homosexuality as a mental disorder, this stopping point has been reaffirmed by additional question findings and by both associations.However, when one is reared to believe a certain way, it is not flourishing to change his or her opinion. Psychiatrists, psychologists and the Lord above could urge one to consider a learned fact however, to dispute a theory learned early in life is sometimes im practical. This unfair discrimination against homosexuals is an restraint to their leading a normal, happy and productive life, which is the desire of gay men and lesbians, just as it is the desire of straight men and women. Research has shown a high rate of forcefulness, as well as discrimination, against homosexuals. Just as it is with straight men, the more positive the gay male identity, the better ones mental health will become and the higher(prenominal) ones self-esteem will be. To chance on this, the acceptance of gay men and lesbians as productive citizens, without prejudice, is necessary. Protection against violence and discrimination would not be necessary if one understood that gay men and lesbians are just like you and me the only difference is their sexual preference.Most scientists today agree that sexual orientation is the result of a combination of environmental, hormonal, and genetic factors . In other words, there are many factors that contribute to a persons sexual orientation, and the factors may be diametric for different people.In other words, we intend to query in depth on each factor stated and how does it affect a persons sexual orientation then come to a conclusion if sexual orientation is genetic relating back to our topic. This is the prime objective of this project. To arrive at our objectives, we have to research about the other factors affecting sexual orientation.Therefore, we have divided each factor into 3 subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 will be a detailed explanation on how genetic factors contribute to sexual orientation. Chapter 3 consequently will be discussing on environmental and emotional factors in relation to sexual orientation. Besides that, Chapter 4 is on the intent contend by endocrines in determining a persons sexual orientation. All these 3 chapters will be discussing sexual orientation on homosexuality and bisexuality.The closing ch apter will relate back to our main topic which is Is Sexual Orientation Genetic? A conclusion will be brought about based on the research, studies and evidences done on the previous 3 chapters.Chapter 2 Genetic FactorsChromosomes in humans can be divided into two types which is autosomes and sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes contain certain genetic traits link to a persons sex. It can be XX with phenotype female and XY with phenotype male. On the other hand, the autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. Both autosomes and sex chromosomes act in the identical way during jail cell division. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes of which 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosome giving a total of 46 per cell for one human. A persons sex is determined by the sex chromosome (wiki chromosome). base on a research conducted by scientists on November 8th 2007, newfangled evidences have been uncovered showing genetics has a role to play in determining wheth er an individual is homosexual or heterosexual. Dr. Sandra Witelson, a neuroscientist in the Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine at McMaster University, and colleges at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre in Toronto conducted the research on studies of the brains of healthy, right handed, 18 to 35- year old homosexual and heterosexual men using magnetic resonance imagining (MRI). About 10 years ago, which is now accepted as fact, studies have demonstrated that there is a higher proportion of left-handers in the homosexual population than the ecumenical population. Consequently, in other research it was implant that left-handers have a freehandedr region of the posterior corpus callosum which is the thick band of nerve fibres connecting the two hemispheres of the brain compared to the right- handers. Furthermore, the posterior part of the corpus callosum is with child(p)r in homosexual than heterosexual men. The size of corpus callosum is largely inherit suggesting a genetic f actor in sexual orientation. A correlational digest by researchers which included size of the corpus callosum, and test scores on language, opthalmic spatial and finger dexterity tests. Prediction on sexual orientation in 95 per cent of the cases was done by using all these variables.A report by the National Cancer Institute researchers states that the appearance that many homosexual men inherit a gene from their mothers that ascertains sexual orientation. It was suggested that inherited genetic factors at least play a role in determining sexual orientation. The guides lead author Dean Hamer, old geezer of the cancer institutes section on Gene Structure and regulation conclude that it is basically not a choice or a decision to be a gay. However, people have no control over the genes inherited and there is no way to change it. The family histories of 114 gay men were studied and it was found that more homosexual brothers, uncles and male cousins than would be pass judgment in the general population whereby some families had three generations of homosexual relatives. It was suggested that something inherited was going on since the uncles and cousins were not raised in the same home plate but do share genetic information.Fol broken ining up another studies was made on the DNA from 40 pairs of homosexual brothers and it was found that 33 of them shared same genetic markers on the X chromosome in a region known as Xq28. The X chromosomes are always inherited from mothers. Genes consist of tiny coils of DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, which carries the instructions to manufacture a particular dust substance. No such connatural sharing was present in the same region among heterosexual men. It is expected that this region will be important for both heterosexual and homosexual development providing very small and shrewd difference between the genes of each group. However, the finding does not explain all homosexuality. Seven out of 40 pairs of homosexual brother s studied did not have the common genetic factor.Part of the studies state that the cancer Kaposis sarcoma unusually afflicts large numbers of homosexuals. Further sight is being conducted to determine whether a similar genetic link occurs in families of homosexual women hoping to identify the specific gene involved in sexual orientation.Gregory King, spokesman for the merciful Rights Campaign Fund, a gay and lesbian activist group, said he hoped from the studies it would help Americans understand that most lesbian and gay people do not choose their sexual orientation. Despite, concerns are there among people who are lesbians and gay that this discovery will be misused to suggest that homosexuality is something that needs to be corrected.According to the variation in sexual orientation, heritability studies have differed on the precise component of genetics, though a fewer linkage studies have indicated a possible role for certain genes on the X chromosome. However, the strength of that evidence is check due to the conflicting nature of the reports and small specimen sizes. Some of the questions in relation to the possible genetic underpinnings of sexual orientation have been thin by a more recent athletic field conducted by the initiative ever genome-wide association study (GWAS) on sexual orientation. It is also in relation to the release of a web-based survey to the large 23andMe database of over 180,000 individuals.Furthermore, the other non-genetic phenotypes associated with sexual orientation are also explored. The objective is to understand the relationship between sexual orientation and non-genetic phenotypes as the data collected was extracted from dozens of 23andMe surveys taking into consideration thousands of conditions and trait. Research has shown that lesbians are more likely than heterosexual women to have alcoholism and alcohol-related problems (3). A number of studies have also found that women with same sex partners are more likely to have psychiatric disorders, including major depression (4) and men with same sex partners are more likely to have anxiety and mood disorders (5).Phenotype analyses were conducted using linear or logistic regression. In statistics, linear regression is the relationship between a scalar open variable Y and one or more explanatory variables denoted X as the data modelled using linear predictor functions, and unknown model parameters are estimated from the data. Logistic regression is a type of analysis used to predict the outcome of a categorical dependent variable based on one or more predictor variables that is used in estimating empirical values of the parameters in a soft response model(wiki). The reported betas are the change on the sexual identity scale per unit of the other phenotype. Both the phenotype analyses and GWAS analyses controlled for age, the first five genius components, and attitudes towards homosexuality as collected in the Sexual Orientation Survey. GWAS an alyses were conducted in individuals of European descent.The questions asked for this study to over 23,000 individuals 23andMe database is as followsThe survey counts based on the questions asked were as belowThey have examined the correlation between sexual identity and 1000 phenotypes already characterized in the 23andMe database through other surveys. These analyses were preliminary as outliers or confounders beyond what is listed in the methods were not checked. Previous ndings were replicated showing a positive association between lesbians and alcoholism, and between lesbians and gay men and some(prenominal) psychiatric conditions.Chapter 3 Environmental and Emotional FactorsOn the development of human sexual orientation, another possible factor is the environmental and emotional captures. umteen influences or factors lead to sexual orientation but no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or f actors. Therefore, a great deal of people hypothesises nature and nurture both play complex roles (wiki environment sexual orientation).Environmental factors are associated with family influences. Evidence have been provided by researches that gay men report having had less loving and more rejecting fathers, and closer relationships with their mothers, than non-gay men. Some researchers think this may indicate that childhood family experiences are important determinants to homosexuality, or that parents carry on this way in response to gender-variant traits in a child. Both possibilities great power be true in different cases (wiki). childhood factors do affect marital choices as children who experience parental divorce are less likely to marry heterosexually than those growing up in whole families. In a broad point of view, heterosexual marriage was profoundly cerebrate to having young parents, small age differences between parents, stable parental relationships, large sibsh ips (a group of offspring having the same two parents) , and late birth order. For men, homosexual marriage was associated with having older mothers, separate parents, absent fathers, and being the youngest child. On the other hand, for women, motherlike death during adolescence and being the only or youngest child or the only girl in the family increase the likelihood of homosexual marriage. Childhood family experiences are important determinants of heterosexual and homosexual marriage decisions in maturity (http//link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10508-006-9062-2).Consequently, parental sexual orientation may affect child development. Studies were focused on an early research on children with lesbian and gay parents in which the children had been born(p) in the context of a heterosexual marriage. The developments among children of divorced lesbian mothers were compared with children of divorced heterosexual mothers and few significant differences were found. Children in the research who had been born into homes with married mothers and fathers have no obvious reasons to understand on their healthy development as the children faced early exposure to plain heterosexual male and female role models which mainly contributes to the healthy development.In comparison, a study conducted by Charlotte J. Patterson from University of Virginia on lesbian or gay parents who rear infants and children from offspring and it is important that the children had never lived with heterosexual parents. The study was on a group of 4 to 9 year old children who had been born to or adopted early in life by lesbian mothers. Results from in-home interviews and also from questionnaires showed that children had regular contact with a wide range of adults of both genders, both within and outside of their families. The childrens self-concepts and preferences for same-gender playfellows and activities were much like those of other children their ages. Moreover, convertible measures o f social competence and of behaviour problems, such as those from the Child doings Checklist (CBCL), showed that they scored within the range of normal variation for a representative sample of same-aged American children. Therefore, it was clear from this study and others like it that it was quite possible for lesbian mothers to rear healthy children.Consistent with earlier findings, results from the study revealed few differences in adjustment between adolescents living with same-sex parents and those living with opposite-sex parents . There were no significant differences between teenagers living with same-sex parents and those living with other-sex parents on self-reported assessments of psychological well-being, such as self-esteem and anxiety, measures of school outcomes, such as grade point averages and scuffle in school, or measures of family relationships, such as parental warmth and electric charge from adults and peers. Adolescents in the two groups were as likely to s ay that they had been involved in a romantic relationship in the last 18 months, and they were equally likely to report having engaged in sexual intercourse. The only statistically reliable difference between the two groups is that those with same-sex parents felt a great sense of connection to people at school compared to the youngsters living with same-sex couples. There were no significant differences in self-reported substance use, delinquency, or peer victimisation between those reared by same or other-sex couples.Although the gender of parents partners was not an important predictor of adolescent well-being, other aspects of family relationships were significantly associated with teenagers adjustment. Consistent with other findings about adolescent development, the qualities of family relationships rather than the gender of parents partners were consistently related to adolescent outcomes. Parents who reported having close relationships with their offspring had adolescents wh o reported more favourable adjustment.The fact that children of lesbian mothers generally develop in healthy ways should not be taken to suggest that no challenges were encountered. Many investigators have remarked upon the fact that children of lesbian and gay parents may encounter anti-gay sentiments in their daily lives. For example, in a study of 10- year-old children born to lesbian mothers, Gartrell, Deck, Rodas, Peyser, and Banks (2005) reported that a substantial minority had encountered anti-gay sentiments among their peers. Those who had such encounters were likely to report having felt angry, upset, or sad about these experiences. Children of lesbian and gay parents may be exposed to prejudice against their parents in some settings, and this may be painful for them, but evidence for the judgement that such encounters affect childrens overall adjustment is lacking.Another study, published in the October 2006 issue of Archives of Sexual Behaviour, authored by Danish epide miologist Morten Frisch and statistician Anders Hviid, reports the analysis of data from over two million men and women. It is the first study to examine an entire group of homosexuals for environmental factors in their decisions to marry homosexually. The research suggests a link between environmental factors such as geographic birthplace and family relationships and the prospect of marrying a same-sex or opposite-sex partner. The massive study also finds that the number of brothers and sisters increases the probability of marrying heterosexually. This finding questions a recent, widely touted Canadian study of birth order that found the number of older brothers increased the in all probability of homosexuality in men.The researchers found for each additional year ones parents stupefy married, the probability of heterosexual marriage in the children increased by 1.6% among sons and 1.0% among daughters. In contrast, the rate of homosexual unions decreased by 1.8% among sons and 1.4% among daughters for every year of whole parental marriage. Summing these effects over years of childhood and adolescence contributes to a remarkable impact.Regarding homosexual marriages, researchers have also found that birth place relates to the sexual orientation of marriage partner. Being born in urban settings increased the probability of homosexual marriage and decreased the probability of heterosexual marriage. This study was said to be the first to show that birth place or some correlate thereof influences marital choices in adulthood.The researchers also confirmed previous research suggesting that children who experience parental divorce are less likely to marry heterosexually than children reared in intact families. For men, unknown paternal identity, parental divorce, short duration of cohabitation with both parents, and long duration of father-absent cohabitation with mother were all associated with increased rates of homosexual marriage. For women, homosexual mar riage rates were gallant among women whose parents were married briefly, and those who experienced long periods of mother absence due either to abandonment or death during the teen years.Taken together, the studys findings suggest that intact parents bearing multiple children and living in rural areas increase the probability of heterosexual pairings in their children. The study was not designed to examine all possible contributions to sexual orientation nor does it account for individual situations. We know, for instance, that gays and straights come from all kinds of families and locations. However, the study raises the possibility that family and social factors function to help shape adult sexual orientation.Chapter 4 Hormonal FactorsHormones are your bodys chemical messengers. It is released by one or more cells which travel through the bloodstream that affects cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is compulsory to alter cell metabolism. In relat ion to sexuality following up the hormonal theory, exposure to certain hormones plays an act in fetal sex differentiation. Besides that, this exposure also influences the sexual orientation that emerges later in the adult.Hormones which interact with the developing brain cells coming from the differences in brain social structure are accredit to be the basis of sex differences in unlimited behaviour, including sexual orientation. The interaction of these hormones on the developing brain is affected by antenatal factors that can influence later the sex-typed behaviour in children.Factors hypothesized in contributing to sex-typed behaviour concerns the same as those hypothesized to contribute to sexual orientation. high rates of sex-a representative behaviour in childhood and adulthood are seen in homosexual men and women compared to the same sex heterosexuals. Early hormones have been suggested to influence both sexual orientation and related childhood sex-typed behaviours. Recen t studies, however, have provided evidence in support of prenatal androgenic hormone exposure influencing childhood sex-typed behaviour.An example of the study is Early Hormonal Influences on Childhood Sex-Typed act and Playmate Preferences Implications for the Development of Sexual Orientation. The hormonal influences on activity and playmate preferences in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are examined. The children were in the range of ages between 2.5 to 12 years. It is observed that CAH girls preferred boys toys and activities and had greater preference for boy playmates than controls. On the other hand, CAH boys did not differ significantly from controls and activity and playmate preferences were not related. From this it was concluded that early androgen has a major effect on childhood activity preferences but only a weak influence on playmate preferences. Besides that, sex segregation does not arise from sex-typed activity preferences, activity and playmat e preferences may be differently predictive of sexual orientation and hormonal influences on sexual orientation are likely to be complex.Consequently, prospective and retrospective studies of childhood gender role behaviour reveal homosexual males to be more likely than heterosexual males in the sense of participating in girls games, to experiment with cosmetics and jewellery and to be less likely than heterosexual males to participate in sports. In the same way, lesbians analytical report shows that they were more likely than heterosexual females in the port of participating in sports, to be called a tomboy and to be less likely than heterosexual females as in experimenting with or using cosmetics and jewellery or even to wear dresses. From reports by Bailey Zucker, it was also known that homosexual men and women played with opposite sex playmates in childhood more that did heterosexual men and women.However, the differences between homosexual and heterosexual individuals may no t be confined to childhood activities. For example, in another report by McCormick Witelson, it is stated that heterosexual men have higher spatial ability and lower verbal ability compared to both homosexual men and heterosexual women. Besides that, a higher rate of left-handedness has been noticed in both homosexual men and women than heterosexual comparisons.Nonetheless, it is important to note that there are a few other sex-typed behaviours not related to sexual orientation. This is identified as most homosexual men and women have typical gender identity and are similar to same sex heterosexual individuals on aspects of mating psychology related to sexual selection that show sex differences, for example, interest in uncommitted sex. These comparisons are useful because sexual orientation differences that parallel sex differences suggest that some of the factors that cause sex differences also cause differences between homosexual and heterosexual individuals of the same sex. Thi s is because some homosexual individuals are as sex-typical as most heterosexuals, there may be more than one cause of sexual orientation. On the other hand, when sexual orientation differences do not parallel sex differences, different etiologies are likely.Gonadal hormones have been hypothesized to play a main role in the development of sex-typed behaviour and sexual orientation. Thus, high levels of androgen during handsome periods of development have been suggested to produce masculine-typical behaviour, including childhood activities, cognitive abilities, and sexual orientation directed to women, that is, male heterosexuality and female homosexuality, whereas very low levels of androgen during those periods are hypothesized to result in female typical childhood activities, cognitive abilities, and sexual orientation directed to men, that is, male homosexuality and female heterosexuality.Human sex-typed behaviour is also affected by early exposure to hormones. Thus, female part icipants with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), who have high levels of androgen during the prenatal and early postnatal periods, have greater preference for traditionally masculine toys and activities, higher spatial ability, and greater rates of homosexual or bisexual fantasies than controls. Similarly, female participants exposed to high levels of masculinizing or defeminizing hormones as a result of maternal ingestion during pregnancy have been reported to be more self-assertive and to have higher rates of homosexual or bisexual fantasies than controls. These increases in male typical behaviour which occur in the presence of female gender identity in both CAH girls and women and those with exogenous hormone exposure. unique hormone exposure in boys and men has complex relationships to behaviour. In relation, low androgen seems to result in reduced male typical behaviour. priapic adolescents and adults with deficient androgen beginning early in life have shown reduced spati al ability compared with controls. High levels of masculinizing hormones have been associated with increased, decreased, and unchanged masculine typical behaviour. Male participants exposed to androgenizing progestin have been reported to be more aggressive than their brothers, but male participants with CAH and thus high levels of androgen generally show male typical behaviour. There are few systematic studies of sexual behaviour in men with unusual early hormone exposure, but homosexuality may be more common in men who are assumed to have low prenatal testosterone, for example, XXY men.There is evidence especially in female individuals that early hormone exposure affects both sexual orientation and some of the behaviors that are related to it, providing indirect support for the hypothesis that sexual orientation typically is influenced b