Is Sexual Orientation Genetic Sociology Essay

Is Sexual orientation course patrimonialal Sociology EssayIn this change world charge and kindred spiels an in-chief(postnominal) habit as stir is part of who we argon as benevolents. Sexuality defines how we see ourselves and how we physic bothy touch on to diverses beyond having the baron to reproduce. Sexuality is made up of three comp starnts which admit biological energize, cognitionableity personal identity, and social gender agency. In a little(prenominal) brief context, biological bring up is the anatomical, physiological, and transmitted char telephone numbereristics associated with organism a mannish or young-bearing(prenominal), gender identity means the physiological sense of being a male or pistillate and social gender habit is the ethnical norms that define feminine and masculine behaviour (1).Sexual taste is kn cause as an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic and intimate attractions to workforce, wowork force or both sexes besides likewise referring to a individuals sense of identity base on those attractions, colligate behaviours and memberships in a community of an different(prenominal)s who sh are those attractions which whitethorn or may non be evident in a persons visual aspect or behaviour. People may choose non to act on such feelings as having attractions to cat valiumwealth of the alike(p) sex or opposite sex. For example, a bi versed who crumb be attracted to members of altogether(prenominal) sex may choose to be feature a one partner affinity with one gender, in that respectfore, choosing not to act on the attraction of an other(a)(prenominal) gender (1).Three commonly recognized aspect of intimate orientation course are hetero cozy personity, bi informality, homoeroticism and one uncommon aspect is a knowledgeableity which is when a person has no informal attraction or inte expect in internal activity. on that pointfore, sexual orientation differs from sexual behaviour i n that it involves an individuals feelings and perception of their testify sexuality. accord to current scientific and professional understanding, the core attractions that form the floor for vainglorious sexual orientation typic anyy emerge betwixt warmheartedness chelahood and aboriginal adolescence. These patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction may rig out without whatever prior sexual experience.Heterosexuality is the attraction to individuals of the other gender which isthe cultural normality for the behaviour of males and distaffs. For example, males and distaffs being attracted to individuals of the opposite sex.Bisexuality is the attraction to members of any gender, as an example a male having a sexual relationship with another male partner as intimately with a female partner.On the other hand, oddity can be defined as the attraction to members of the very(prenominal) gender, are not completely understood by scientists.Scientists sacrifice pon dered the theory for almost(prenominal) historic period that sexual preference is a knowledgeable behaviour that is developed during untimely puerility. thither are much theories regarding how a particular sexual orientation develops. Some scientists share the check that sexual orientation is shaped at an early age by dint of interactions of biological, psychological and social factors. Other psychologists, psychiatrists and cordial health professionals agree that manity may be factortic onlyy predetermined.Research over the past cardinal years has determined that paederasticity is not an illness, workforcetal disorder or emotional problem. Other objective look denominates that homophileorientation is not associated with emotional or social problems. Because sexual orientation develops in early adolescence, without whatsoever prior sexual experience, it is trustd that it is not chosen. It has been report that some quite a little try diligently to change their sexual preference from homosexual to straight person with no success. For this reason, psychologists do not consider sexual orientation to be a conscious choice that can be voluntarily changed.An untrue stereo typeface round homosexuals is the belief that festive hands throw away more than(prenominal)(prenominal) of a tendencythan straight hands to sexu wholey molest children. There is no render of this. Instead, recent studies have shown that homosexual parents are kinda capable of rearing developgenially secure children who are intelligent, as well as being psychologically well adjusted. There is no evidence that homosexual parents are less(prenominal)(prenominal) capable of parenting than heterosexual parents. Because therapy cannot change sexual orientation, it is significant for decree to become better educated around homosexuality, and so diminishing anti- jovial prejudice.Accurate information for young people struggling with their own sexual identity is espec iallyimportant. The belief that such information when assumption to young people go forth travel ones sexual orientation is not valid. The people who have the most positive attitudes toward festive men and homosexuals are those who say they know one or more cheery persons well. For this reason, psychiatrists believe that discrimination against homosexuality is establish on his or her lack of knowledge concerning fairylike people. Therefore, educating all people about sexual orientationand homosexuality is likely to diminish anti-gay prejudice.Homosexuality was once believed to be a mental illness, due to the unfortunatefact that mental health professionals furnished society with incorrect information. Most studies about homosexuals only involved gay men and sapphics who were in therapy. They were seeking help for their problems, just as straight men and women do. These studies, and the misunderstanding of homosexuality, seriously damaged the acceptance of gay men and sapphi cs. The theories of homosexuals by psychologists, psychiatrists and other mental healthprofessionals, painted an untrue portrait of gay men and lesbians. This unfair portrayal directly attributed to the un-acceptance of homosexuals.In 1973, the American psychiatrical Association substantiate that homosexuals were not mentally ill, and it was not until 2 years later in 1975, that the American Psychological Association passed a response supporting this confirmation. Both associations urged all mental health professionals to help rout out the stigma of mental illness that had been associated with homosexual orientation. Since this original declassification of homosexuality as a mental disorder, this stopping point has been reaffirmed by additional question findings and by both associations.However, when one is reared to believe a certain way, it is not flourishing to change his or her opinion. Psychiatrists, psychologists and the Lord above could urge one to consider a learned fact however, to dispute a theory learned early in life is sometimes im practical. This unfair discrimination against homosexuals is an restraint to their leading a normal, happy and productive life, which is the desire of gay men and lesbians, just as it is the desire of straight men and women. Research has shown a high rate of forcefulness, as well as discrimination, against homosexuals. Just as it is with straight men, the more positive the gay male identity, the better ones mental health will become and the higher(prenominal) ones self-esteem will be. To chance on this, the acceptance of gay men and lesbians as productive citizens, without prejudice, is necessary. Protection against violence and discrimination would not be necessary if one understood that gay men and lesbians are just like you and me the only difference is their sexual preference.Most scientists today agree that sexual orientation is the result of a combination of environmental, hormonal, and genetic factors . In other words, there are many factors that contribute to a persons sexual orientation, and the factors may be diametric for different people.In other words, we intend to query in depth on each factor stated and how does it affect a persons sexual orientation then come to a conclusion if sexual orientation is genetic relating back to our topic. This is the prime objective of this project. To arrive at our objectives, we have to research about the other factors affecting sexual orientation.Therefore, we have divided each factor into 3 subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 will be a detailed explanation on how genetic factors contribute to sexual orientation. Chapter 3 consequently will be discussing on environmental and emotional factors in relation to sexual orientation. Besides that, Chapter 4 is on the intent contend by endocrines in determining a persons sexual orientation. All these 3 chapters will be discussing sexual orientation on homosexuality and bisexuality.The closing ch apter will relate back to our main topic which is Is Sexual Orientation Genetic? A conclusion will be brought about based on the research, studies and evidences done on the previous 3 chapters.Chapter 2 Genetic FactorsChromosomes in humans can be divided into two types which is autosomes and sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes contain certain genetic traits link to a persons sex. It can be XX with phenotype female and XY with phenotype male. On the other hand, the autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. Both autosomes and sex chromosomes act in the identical way during jail cell division. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes of which 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosome giving a total of 46 per cell for one human. A persons sex is determined by the sex chromosome (wiki chromosome). base on a research conducted by scientists on November 8th 2007, newfangled evidences have been uncovered showing genetics has a role to play in determining wheth er an individual is homosexual or heterosexual. Dr. Sandra Witelson, a neuroscientist in the Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine at McMaster University, and colleges at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre in Toronto conducted the research on studies of the brains of healthy, right handed, 18 to 35- year old homosexual and heterosexual men using magnetic resonance imagining (MRI). About 10 years ago, which is now accepted as fact, studies have demonstrated that there is a higher proportion of left-handers in the homosexual population than the ecumenical population. Consequently, in other research it was implant that left-handers have a freehandedr region of the posterior corpus callosum which is the thick band of nerve fibres connecting the two hemispheres of the brain compared to the right- handers. Furthermore, the posterior part of the corpus callosum is with child(p)r in homosexual than heterosexual men. The size of corpus callosum is largely inherit suggesting a genetic f actor in sexual orientation. A correlational digest by researchers which included size of the corpus callosum, and test scores on language, opthalmic spatial and finger dexterity tests. Prediction on sexual orientation in 95 per cent of the cases was done by using all these variables.A report by the National Cancer Institute researchers states that the appearance that many homosexual men inherit a gene from their mothers that ascertains sexual orientation. It was suggested that inherited genetic factors at least play a role in determining sexual orientation. The guides lead author Dean Hamer, old geezer of the cancer institutes section on Gene Structure and regulation conclude that it is basically not a choice or a decision to be a gay. However, people have no control over the genes inherited and there is no way to change it. The family histories of 114 gay men were studied and it was found that more homosexual brothers, uncles and male cousins than would be pass judgment in the general population whereby some families had three generations of homosexual relatives. It was suggested that something inherited was going on since the uncles and cousins were not raised in the same home plate but do share genetic information.Fol broken ining up another studies was made on the DNA from 40 pairs of homosexual brothers and it was found that 33 of them shared same genetic markers on the X chromosome in a region known as Xq28. The X chromosomes are always inherited from mothers. Genes consist of tiny coils of DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, which carries the instructions to manufacture a particular dust substance. No such connatural sharing was present in the same region among heterosexual men. It is expected that this region will be important for both heterosexual and homosexual development providing very small and shrewd difference between the genes of each group. However, the finding does not explain all homosexuality. Seven out of 40 pairs of homosexual brother s studied did not have the common genetic factor.Part of the studies state that the cancer Kaposis sarcoma unusually afflicts large numbers of homosexuals. Further sight is being conducted to determine whether a similar genetic link occurs in families of homosexual women hoping to identify the specific gene involved in sexual orientation.Gregory King, spokesman for the merciful Rights Campaign Fund, a gay and lesbian activist group, said he hoped from the studies it would help Americans understand that most lesbian and gay people do not choose their sexual orientation. Despite, concerns are there among people who are lesbians and gay that this discovery will be misused to suggest that homosexuality is something that needs to be corrected.According to the variation in sexual orientation, heritability studies have differed on the precise component of genetics, though a fewer linkage studies have indicated a possible role for certain genes on the X chromosome. However, the strength of that evidence is check due to the conflicting nature of the reports and small specimen sizes. Some of the questions in relation to the possible genetic underpinnings of sexual orientation have been thin by a more recent athletic field conducted by the initiative ever genome-wide association study (GWAS) on sexual orientation. It is also in relation to the release of a web-based survey to the large 23andMe database of over 180,000 individuals.Furthermore, the other non-genetic phenotypes associated with sexual orientation are also explored. The objective is to understand the relationship between sexual orientation and non-genetic phenotypes as the data collected was extracted from dozens of 23andMe surveys taking into consideration thousands of conditions and trait. Research has shown that lesbians are more likely than heterosexual women to have alcoholism and alcohol-related problems (3). A number of studies have also found that women with same sex partners are more likely to have psychiatric disorders, including major depression (4) and men with same sex partners are more likely to have anxiety and mood disorders (5).Phenotype analyses were conducted using linear or logistic regression. In statistics, linear regression is the relationship between a scalar open variable Y and one or more explanatory variables denoted X as the data modelled using linear predictor functions, and unknown model parameters are estimated from the data. Logistic regression is a type of analysis used to predict the outcome of a categorical dependent variable based on one or more predictor variables that is used in estimating empirical values of the parameters in a soft response model(wiki). The reported betas are the change on the sexual identity scale per unit of the other phenotype. Both the phenotype analyses and GWAS analyses controlled for age, the first five genius components, and attitudes towards homosexuality as collected in the Sexual Orientation Survey. GWAS an alyses were conducted in individuals of European descent.The questions asked for this study to over 23,000 individuals 23andMe database is as followsThe survey counts based on the questions asked were as belowThey have examined the correlation between sexual identity and 1000 phenotypes already characterized in the 23andMe database through other surveys. These analyses were preliminary as outliers or confounders beyond what is listed in the methods were not checked. Previous ndings were replicated showing a positive association between lesbians and alcoholism, and between lesbians and gay men and some(prenominal) psychiatric conditions.Chapter 3 Environmental and Emotional FactorsOn the development of human sexual orientation, another possible factor is the environmental and emotional captures. umteen influences or factors lead to sexual orientation but no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or f actors. Therefore, a great deal of people hypothesises nature and nurture both play complex roles (wiki environment sexual orientation).Environmental factors are associated with family influences. Evidence have been provided by researches that gay men report having had less loving and more rejecting fathers, and closer relationships with their mothers, than non-gay men. Some researchers think this may indicate that childhood family experiences are important determinants to homosexuality, or that parents carry on this way in response to gender-variant traits in a child. Both possibilities great power be true in different cases (wiki). childhood factors do affect marital choices as children who experience parental divorce are less likely to marry heterosexually than those growing up in whole families. In a broad point of view, heterosexual marriage was profoundly cerebrate to having young parents, small age differences between parents, stable parental relationships, large sibsh ips (a group of offspring having the same two parents) , and late birth order. For men, homosexual marriage was associated with having older mothers, separate parents, absent fathers, and being the youngest child. On the other hand, for women, motherlike death during adolescence and being the only or youngest child or the only girl in the family increase the likelihood of homosexual marriage. Childhood family experiences are important determinants of heterosexual and homosexual marriage decisions in maturity (http//link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10508-006-9062-2).Consequently, parental sexual orientation may affect child development. Studies were focused on an early research on children with lesbian and gay parents in which the children had been born(p) in the context of a heterosexual marriage. The developments among children of divorced lesbian mothers were compared with children of divorced heterosexual mothers and few significant differences were found. Children in the research who had been born into homes with married mothers and fathers have no obvious reasons to understand on their healthy development as the children faced early exposure to plain heterosexual male and female role models which mainly contributes to the healthy development.In comparison, a study conducted by Charlotte J. Patterson from University of Virginia on lesbian or gay parents who rear infants and children from offspring and it is important that the children had never lived with heterosexual parents. The study was on a group of 4 to 9 year old children who had been born to or adopted early in life by lesbian mothers. Results from in-home interviews and also from questionnaires showed that children had regular contact with a wide range of adults of both genders, both within and outside of their families. The childrens self-concepts and preferences for same-gender playfellows and activities were much like those of other children their ages. Moreover, convertible measures o f social competence and of behaviour problems, such as those from the Child doings Checklist (CBCL), showed that they scored within the range of normal variation for a representative sample of same-aged American children. Therefore, it was clear from this study and others like it that it was quite possible for lesbian mothers to rear healthy children.Consistent with earlier findings, results from the study revealed few differences in adjustment between adolescents living with same-sex parents and those living with opposite-sex parents . There were no significant differences between teenagers living with same-sex parents and those living with other-sex parents on self-reported assessments of psychological well-being, such as self-esteem and anxiety, measures of school outcomes, such as grade point averages and scuffle in school, or measures of family relationships, such as parental warmth and electric charge from adults and peers. Adolescents in the two groups were as likely to s ay that they had been involved in a romantic relationship in the last 18 months, and they were equally likely to report having engaged in sexual intercourse. The only statistically reliable difference between the two groups is that those with same-sex parents felt a great sense of connection to people at school compared to the youngsters living with same-sex couples. There were no significant differences in self-reported substance use, delinquency, or peer victimisation between those reared by same or other-sex couples.Although the gender of parents partners was not an important predictor of adolescent well-being, other aspects of family relationships were significantly associated with teenagers adjustment. Consistent with other findings about adolescent development, the qualities of family relationships rather than the gender of parents partners were consistently related to adolescent outcomes. Parents who reported having close relationships with their offspring had adolescents wh o reported more favourable adjustment.The fact that children of lesbian mothers generally develop in healthy ways should not be taken to suggest that no challenges were encountered. Many investigators have remarked upon the fact that children of lesbian and gay parents may encounter anti-gay sentiments in their daily lives. For example, in a study of 10- year-old children born to lesbian mothers, Gartrell, Deck, Rodas, Peyser, and Banks (2005) reported that a substantial minority had encountered anti-gay sentiments among their peers. Those who had such encounters were likely to report having felt angry, upset, or sad about these experiences. Children of lesbian and gay parents may be exposed to prejudice against their parents in some settings, and this may be painful for them, but evidence for the judgement that such encounters affect childrens overall adjustment is lacking.Another study, published in the October 2006 issue of Archives of Sexual Behaviour, authored by Danish epide miologist Morten Frisch and statistician Anders Hviid, reports the analysis of data from over two million men and women. It is the first study to examine an entire group of homosexuals for environmental factors in their decisions to marry homosexually. The research suggests a link between environmental factors such as geographic birthplace and family relationships and the prospect of marrying a same-sex or opposite-sex partner. The massive study also finds that the number of brothers and sisters increases the probability of marrying heterosexually. This finding questions a recent, widely touted Canadian study of birth order that found the number of older brothers increased the in all probability of homosexuality in men.The researchers found for each additional year ones parents stupefy married, the probability of heterosexual marriage in the children increased by 1.6% among sons and 1.0% among daughters. In contrast, the rate of homosexual unions decreased by 1.8% among sons and 1.4% among daughters for every year of whole parental marriage. Summing these effects over years of childhood and adolescence contributes to a remarkable impact.Regarding homosexual marriages, researchers have also found that birth place relates to the sexual orientation of marriage partner. Being born in urban settings increased the probability of homosexual marriage and decreased the probability of heterosexual marriage. This study was said to be the first to show that birth place or some correlate thereof influences marital choices in adulthood.The researchers also confirmed previous research suggesting that children who experience parental divorce are less likely to marry heterosexually than children reared in intact families. For men, unknown paternal identity, parental divorce, short duration of cohabitation with both parents, and long duration of father-absent cohabitation with mother were all associated with increased rates of homosexual marriage. For women, homosexual mar riage rates were gallant among women whose parents were married briefly, and those who experienced long periods of mother absence due either to abandonment or death during the teen years.Taken together, the studys findings suggest that intact parents bearing multiple children and living in rural areas increase the probability of heterosexual pairings in their children. The study was not designed to examine all possible contributions to sexual orientation nor does it account for individual situations. We know, for instance, that gays and straights come from all kinds of families and locations. However, the study raises the possibility that family and social factors function to help shape adult sexual orientation.Chapter 4 Hormonal FactorsHormones are your bodys chemical messengers. It is released by one or more cells which travel through the bloodstream that affects cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is compulsory to alter cell metabolism. In relat ion to sexuality following up the hormonal theory, exposure to certain hormones plays an act in fetal sex differentiation. Besides that, this exposure also influences the sexual orientation that emerges later in the adult.Hormones which interact with the developing brain cells coming from the differences in brain social structure are accredit to be the basis of sex differences in unlimited behaviour, including sexual orientation. The interaction of these hormones on the developing brain is affected by antenatal factors that can influence later the sex-typed behaviour in children.Factors hypothesized in contributing to sex-typed behaviour concerns the same as those hypothesized to contribute to sexual orientation. high rates of sex-a representative behaviour in childhood and adulthood are seen in homosexual men and women compared to the same sex heterosexuals. Early hormones have been suggested to influence both sexual orientation and related childhood sex-typed behaviours. Recen t studies, however, have provided evidence in support of prenatal androgenic hormone exposure influencing childhood sex-typed behaviour.An example of the study is Early Hormonal Influences on Childhood Sex-Typed act and Playmate Preferences Implications for the Development of Sexual Orientation. The hormonal influences on activity and playmate preferences in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are examined. The children were in the range of ages between 2.5 to 12 years. It is observed that CAH girls preferred boys toys and activities and had greater preference for boy playmates than controls. On the other hand, CAH boys did not differ significantly from controls and activity and playmate preferences were not related. From this it was concluded that early androgen has a major effect on childhood activity preferences but only a weak influence on playmate preferences. Besides that, sex segregation does not arise from sex-typed activity preferences, activity and playmat e preferences may be differently predictive of sexual orientation and hormonal influences on sexual orientation are likely to be complex.Consequently, prospective and retrospective studies of childhood gender role behaviour reveal homosexual males to be more likely than heterosexual males in the sense of participating in girls games, to experiment with cosmetics and jewellery and to be less likely than heterosexual males to participate in sports. In the same way, lesbians analytical report shows that they were more likely than heterosexual females in the port of participating in sports, to be called a tomboy and to be less likely than heterosexual females as in experimenting with or using cosmetics and jewellery or even to wear dresses. From reports by Bailey Zucker, it was also known that homosexual men and women played with opposite sex playmates in childhood more that did heterosexual men and women.However, the differences between homosexual and heterosexual individuals may no t be confined to childhood activities. For example, in another report by McCormick Witelson, it is stated that heterosexual men have higher spatial ability and lower verbal ability compared to both homosexual men and heterosexual women. Besides that, a higher rate of left-handedness has been noticed in both homosexual men and women than heterosexual comparisons.Nonetheless, it is important to note that there are a few other sex-typed behaviours not related to sexual orientation. This is identified as most homosexual men and women have typical gender identity and are similar to same sex heterosexual individuals on aspects of mating psychology related to sexual selection that show sex differences, for example, interest in uncommitted sex. These comparisons are useful because sexual orientation differences that parallel sex differences suggest that some of the factors that cause sex differences also cause differences between homosexual and heterosexual individuals of the same sex. Thi s is because some homosexual individuals are as sex-typical as most heterosexuals, there may be more than one cause of sexual orientation. On the other hand, when sexual orientation differences do not parallel sex differences, different etiologies are likely.Gonadal hormones have been hypothesized to play a main role in the development of sex-typed behaviour and sexual orientation. Thus, high levels of androgen during handsome periods of development have been suggested to produce masculine-typical behaviour, including childhood activities, cognitive abilities, and sexual orientation directed to women, that is, male heterosexuality and female homosexuality, whereas very low levels of androgen during those periods are hypothesized to result in female typical childhood activities, cognitive abilities, and sexual orientation directed to men, that is, male homosexuality and female heterosexuality.Human sex-typed behaviour is also affected by early exposure to hormones. Thus, female part icipants with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), who have high levels of androgen during the prenatal and early postnatal periods, have greater preference for traditionally masculine toys and activities, higher spatial ability, and greater rates of homosexual or bisexual fantasies than controls. Similarly, female participants exposed to high levels of masculinizing or defeminizing hormones as a result of maternal ingestion during pregnancy have been reported to be more self-assertive and to have higher rates of homosexual or bisexual fantasies than controls. These increases in male typical behaviour which occur in the presence of female gender identity in both CAH girls and women and those with exogenous hormone exposure. unique hormone exposure in boys and men has complex relationships to behaviour. In relation, low androgen seems to result in reduced male typical behaviour. priapic adolescents and adults with deficient androgen beginning early in life have shown reduced spati al ability compared with controls. High levels of masculinizing hormones have been associated with increased, decreased, and unchanged masculine typical behaviour. Male participants exposed to androgenizing progestin have been reported to be more aggressive than their brothers, but male participants with CAH and thus high levels of androgen generally show male typical behaviour. There are few systematic studies of sexual behaviour in men with unusual early hormone exposure, but homosexuality may be more common in men who are assumed to have low prenatal testosterone, for example, XXY men.There is evidence especially in female individuals that early hormone exposure affects both sexual orientation and some of the behaviors that are related to it, providing indirect support for the hypothesis that sexual orientation typically is influenced b